Lesson 1

Look at the sentence below:

Sumona is a brilliant student.

You can divide the above sentence in different parts, such as:

Sumona/is/a/brilliant/student.
Again these parts play different functions as:

1. Sumona $\to$ refers to a person
2. is $\to$states something
3. brilliant$\to$gives more information about 'student'

Now, you understand that in Parts of Speech words are classified according to their functions. In English, there are eight parts of speech.

The lessons in this unit will discuss parts of speech. Do you remember them? Here is a beautiful poem that will help you remember the parts of speech.

Discuss the following questions in pairs:

   a) What do the bold words in the poem tell about each part of speech?
   b) What examples of different parts of speech are given in the poem?
   c) Can you think of more examples of each part of speech? What are some of them?

Read the sentences below and identify each type of part of speech in it:

1. A frightened man was seeking help desperately.
2. The sun was setting slowly in the west.
3. A village boy came and asked the man, "Where did you find the golden chain around your neck?"

Now, read about each type of parts of speech:

Nouns

A noun is a word used to name something: a person/animal, a place, a thing, or an idea. For example, all of the following are nouns.

• Rahul, Ann, Hamida, Malek
• Japan, Venezuela, the Atlantic, London, the Bay of Bengal
• pencil, store, music, air
• biology, honesty, geometry

Pronouns

A pronoun is a word that replaces a noun. It helps us to avoid repetitions. For example: Instead of Elina talked to Elina's child, you might say Elina talked to her child. Her is the pronoun. It refers to the noun, Elina.

Adjectives

An adjective modifies (describes) a noun or pronoun. Usually, in English, the adjective comes before the noun.
For example: The smart student earned an 'A'.
Adjectives also come after linking verbs. For example: I feel happy.

Verbs

Verbs generally express an action or a state of being. There are several classifications for verbs - action verbs, linking verbs, main verbs, auxiliary verbs, transitive, intransitive and phrasal verbs.

For example :

     Action verbs show action. 

He runs. She plays. They study.

      Linking verbs link the subject to an adjective or a noun.

      Matin is intelligent. He is a teacher. 

      Here the linking verbs connect the adjective (intelligent) or a noun 

      (teacher) with the subject.

Adverbs

An adverb is a word that modifies a verb, an adjective or another adverb. The teacher carefully checks the homework. (Here carefully is an adverb that modifies the verb check.)

Examples :
Tomal was extremely enthusiastic about doing his homework. (Here extremely is an adverb that modifies the adjective enthusiastic.)

Maliha ran out of the classroom very quickly. (Here very is an adverb that modifies the adverb quickly.)

Prepositions

Prepositions are words that connect a noun or pronoun to another word in a sentence. Some common prepositions are on, in, at, with, about, for, to, though.

Conjunctions

Conjunctions join together words, phrases and clauses.

Examples:  He and his brother will come. (words)

                     He came to the class and started teaching.(clauses)

                     It is easy to say but difficult to do. (phrases)

                     She is intelligent; therefore, she does not need too much help. (clauses)

Interjections

Interjections are words used to express emotional states. They can usually be found in narrative writing, interviews, and in spoken English. They can stand alone.

Examples :
         Oh!, Wow!, Ouch! Oops! Hey!
They can also be used in a phrase or sentence.

Examples: 

What a lovely day!
How strong the man is!

The same word as different parts of speech Remember that the same word can be used as different parts of speech. Its function in the sentence will help you to determine the part of speech. Look at the following sentences and notice the functions of the word 'well' in each of the sentences:

     He does not look well. (adjective) 

     The student did well in the test. (adverb) 

     Well, I don't know about that. (interjection)

Exercise
Identify what part of speech each word is in the following sentences:

1. Wow! That is really nice.
2. He seemed sorry as he apologised to us.
3. Mother wanted an answer, but she did not get any reply from her daughter.

Read the song and guess why it leaves out one part of speech. Share your idea with a partner.

A NOUN's the name of anything, 

As: school or garden, toy, or swing.

ADJECTIVES tell the kind of noun, 

As: great, small, pretty, white, or brown.

VERBS tell of something being done: 

To read, write, count, sing, jump, or run. 

How things are done the ADVERBS tell,

As: slowly, quickly, badly, well. 

CONJUNCTIONS join the words together, 

As: men and women, wind or weather.

The PREPOSITION stands before a noun

As: in or through a door.

The INTERJECTION shows surprise 

As: Oh, how pretty! Ahl how wise!

The whole are called the PARTS of SPEECH, 

Which reading, writing, speaking teach.

Lesson 2: Nouns

Noun is one of the eight parts of speech. You must have read about noun in your previous classes. Do you remember what kinds of words nouns are?

Read the story below and underline the nouns.

Friend

Bubbly was a rabbit who lived in the forest. He had many friends. He took pride in their friendship.

One day Bubbly heard the loud barking of the wild dogs. As he was timid, he became afraid. He decided to ask for help. He quickly went to his friend, deer. He said: "Some wild dogs are chasing me. Can you drive them away with your sharp horns?" The deer said: "That is right, I can. But now I am busy. Why don't you ask the bear for help?"

Bubbly, the rabbit, ran to the bear. "My dear friend, you are very strong. Please help me. Some wild dogs are after me. Please chase them away," he requested the bear.

The bear replied: "I am sorry. I am suffering from hunger and weakness. I need to find some food. Please ask the monkey for help".

Poor Bubbly went to the monkey, elephant, goat and all his friends. Bubbly felt sad that nobody showed any interest to help him.

He understood that he has to think of a way out. He hid under a bush. He lay there till the wild dogs went their way.

[Adapted from http://www.kidsworldfun.com/shortstories_friends.php]

Now, compare your underlined words with a partner.

In pairs, discuss the following questions:

   a) What is a noun?
   b) What different types of nouns are there in English?
   c) What roles do nouns play in a sentence?

Look at some more examples of nouns

        Names of people and profession: Alam, Rosy, teacher, doctor

        Names of animals: rat, zebra, lion, tiger

        Names of places: house, Dhaka, factory, school

        Names of objects: table, camera, printer, computer 

        Names of materials: lead, nitrogen, water, ice

        Names of qualities: kindness, beauty, bravery, faithfulness

        Names of actions: rowing, cooking, driving, reading, listening 

        Names of measures: minute, second, day, month, litre

Read the story above again and see whether the words underlined by you are all nouns. As you read the text, try to find the different types of naming words e.g. words that name a particular person/character, words that name an idea and words that name something in general, etc.

Discuss the questions below

a) What type of noun is Bubbly in the story?

b) What type of noun is dogs, deer, bear or elephant? 

c) What type of noun is pride, hunger or weakness?

Read the section below to know more about different types of nouns.

Common nouns : These are the general names of people, places, things, or ideas.

Examples : writer, city, park, religion

Proper nouns : This type of noun has two features: i) It names a specific [usually a one-of-a-kind] item, and ii) It begins with a capital letter [no matter where it occurs in a sentence.]
Examples: Rabindranath Tagore, Paris, Dhaka, Islam

The chart below shows examples of common nouns and proper nouns :

Abstract nouns : Look at the following list. Can you touch or see any of them? Can you count any of them?

They name something that you cannot experience with your five senses - they do not physically exist.

Concrete nouns : Concrete nouns physically exist and can be experienced by the five senses.

For example :

Can you chase them away with your sharp horns?

Horns is an example of a concrete noun. You can see horns of an animal and touch them with your finger and sometimes smell its breath. Look at this chart contrasting abstract and concrete nouns :

Collective nouns : These are nouns that refer to a group of things. Look at the chart below:

Exercise 1

Read the following sentences in pairs and look at the italicized word in each sentence and say whether the italicized nouns are common, proper, collective or abstract.

   1. Honesty is the best policy.
   2. Solomon was famous for his wisdom. 3. A committee of five was appointed.
   4. Jamil is a bright student.
   5. Wisdom is better than riches.
   6. I didn't believe the clown's story.
   7. A teacher must have patience.
   8. Cleanliness is next to godliness.
   9. My sister is a doctor.
   10. My family lives in that house.

Exercise 2

Circle the proper nouns and underline the common nouns in the following sentences:

   1. To make cakes, we need eggs, flour, sugar, and butter.
   2. Jafrin read Gulliver's Travels last week.
   3. Every Tuesday in June, my team takes part in a charity match.
   4. Spelling Bee is my favorite show on television.
   5. The Shishu Park is a place to visit with friends and parents.

Exercise 3

Circle the proper nouns and underline the collective nouns. (There are 10 all together.)

   1. Junaid is the captain of the school cricket team.
   2. My family is going to Kuakata on vacation.
   3. I love the month of June because schools have holidays.
   4. I want a computer for my birthday.

What do nouns do?

Nouns can do lots of things in sentences. Let's look at some of the jobs noun do:

1. Subjects are nouns that tell us who or what a sentence is about.  e.g. Maya kicked the ball.
2. Direct objects are nouns that receive the action of certain kinds of verbs (transitive active verb)  e.g. Maya kicked the ball.
3. Indirect objects are nouns that receive the direct object.  e.g. Mary kicked Joya the ball.  e.g. Mary kicked Joya the ball.
4. Objects of prepositions are nouns that come after prepositions in prepositional phrases.  e.g. Maya kicked the ball to Joya.

Exercise 4

Identify the function of the underlined nouns as indicated below:

     subject       direct        object         indirect object       object of preposition

1. The jury selected Rima as winner.
2. What is Jewel doing on his birthday?
3. Bipasha is my friend.
4. The committee elected Mahfuz its new Vice President.

Lesson 3 : Countable and Uncountable Nouns

In the previous lesson you learnt about various kinds of nouns. In this lesson you will look at two types of nouns - countable and uncountable.

Read the text and underline the nouns in it. Then discuss the following questions in pairs.

Which nouns can you count?

• Can you find any nouns that you cannot count?
• Which nouns take an article before them?

When I am free, I listen to the radio. There are some good radio stations that play music I like, and other stations play a lot of music I don't really like. I like to listen to both old songs and new songs. In fact, I listen to a lot of different music, from classical to modern. Some music on the radio reminds me of when I was younger. I still like those old songs.

Have you got any idea about countable and uncountable nouns from your discussion? Read the section below.

Nouns can be divided into two categories countable and uncountable. Countable nouns are words that represent things we can count. For example, the word song is a countable noun. Here are some more examples:

• An old song, two new songs, etc.
• A collection of 100 songs

Uncountable nouns are words that represent things we do not count. For example, the word music is an uncountable noun. Here are some examples:

• a lot of music
• the music of the 70s

Now, let's look at countable and uncountable nouns in more details. Countable nouns

Countable nouns are either singular or plural. They can be counted and expressed in numbers.

• I need to buy four new suitcases. - Suitcase (s) is a countable noun as adding 's' to it makes it plural.
• I want five oranges? - Here five is used to count the number of oranges.

Countable nouns are easy to recognise. They are things that we can count. For example: 'pen'. We can count pens. We can have one, two, three or more pens. Most countable nouns become plural by adding an 's' at the end of the word.

We can use the indefinite article a/an with countable nouns:

• a good book

When a countable noun is singular, we must use a word like a/the/my/this with it:

• I want an orange. (not I want orange.)
• Where is my watch? (not Where is watch?)

We can use some and any with countable nouns:

• I've got some coins.
• Have you got any pens?

We can use a few and many with countable nouns:

• I've got a few coins.
• I haven't got many pens.

Now, in the above examples you must have noticed the way plural nouns are formed. Discuss with a partner the following questions:

1. How do we convert singular nouns into plural?
2. Do we follow the same rules for making plurals with all nouns?
3. What do the names 'regular nouns' and 'irregular nouns' suggest?

Read the sections below to check your ideas.

Formation of plural of regular nouns

Most nouns form the plural by adding -s.

A noun ending in s, x, ch, sh makes the plural by adding - es

A noun ending in a consonant and then y, makes the plural by dropping the y and adding -ies

Formation of plural of irregular nouns

There are some irregular formations of plural nouns. Some of the most common ones are listed below:

Some nouns have the same form in the singular and the plural.

Remember, these are singular nouns.

news            The news is at 6.30 p.m.
athletics      Athletics is good for young people.
linguistics   Linguistics is the study of language.
darts            Darts is a popular game in England.
politics         Politics is played all over the world.

Some nouns have a fixed plural form and take a plural verb.

Plural noun with plural verb                Sentence

trousers                                                    My trousers are too tight.

jeans                                                         Her jeans are black.

glasses                                                     Those glasses are new.

Uncountable nouns

Uncountable nouns are the exact opposite of Countable Nouns. These nouns are the names of things that cannot be counted and have only a singular form. These nouns use singular verbs in a sentence.

• The furniture was new. (Furniture is an uncountable noun and therefore, we use the singular 'was' in referring to it.)
• Is 250gm of sugar enough? (Sugar is an uncountable noun as sugar itself cannot be counted. It can only be weighed.)
• He is praised for his honesty. - Honesty is an uncountable noun as it has no plural and cannot be counted in physical terms either.

List of some Uncountable Nouns

Using Countable & Uncountable Nouns

Look at the following list and notice which words are used with countable and uncountable nouns:

Note : Usage of few, a few, little, a little

The expressions a little and a few mean some. 

We use a little with singular nouns.

Example :
     I havea little money.
     We use a few with plural nouns.

Example :
     Kaberi has a few friends.

Note that there are differences of meaning when you use a little / a few or little / few with nouns. Without the article, the words have a restricted or negative meaning.
                                a little means 'some'
                                little means 'hardly any'

Examples :
   I need a little money. That means - I need some money. 

   I need little money. That means - I need hardly any money.

Again read about the differences between a few and few.
                               a few = some
                               few = hardly any

Examples:
   A few friends visited me. - Some friends visited me. 

   Few friends visited me. - Hardly any friends visited me.

Exercise 1 :

Are these nouns countable or uncountable? Discuss in pairs and write C for countable and U for uncountable next to each noun.

1. water __
2. fruit __
3. coconut __
4. bread __
5. DVD __
6. meat __
7. ball __
8. sandwich __
9. glasses __
10. pen __
11. milk __
12. chair __
13. patrol __
14. table __
15. cream __
16. money __
17. oil __
18. insect __
19. sofa __
20. soap. __

Exercise 2

Use a /an/some/any with the nouns in the sentences below.

1. Lisa's got a / an towel.
2. Anna's got a / some handbag.
3. Lucky's got an / some insect spray.
4. Jibon hasn't got some / any sunglasses.
5. Raqib's got a / some swimming costume.
6. Ameer has got an / a apple.
7. I haven't got any / some money.
8. Have you got some / any sun cream?
9. We need a/an torch for our camping trip.
10. There isn't some / any litter on the beach.
11. Can I have some / a strawberries?
12. You can have this cereal with some / a milk.
13. I've got any / some fruit.
14. There isn't some / an elephant.
15. Are there some / any plants?

Lesson 4 : Adjectives

What are adjectives? You must have read about adjectives in your previous classes. Do you remember their uses?

Let's read the story below and underline the adjectives.

Universal Rabindranath

Tagore is known as Bishwa Kabi (World Poet) because his literature has universal appeal and is read by many people of the world. His translation of Gitanjali (Song Offerings) won him the Nobel Prize in literature in 1913. Rabindranath dearly loved the land, rivers, people and natural beauty of his motherland. He roamed around rural Bangladesh and wrote about her glory and beauty in songs, poetry, novels and short stories. Besides Tagore was also a social reformer. He was the founder of Bishwa Bharoti. Despite all, Tagore loved to relax in the peaceful environment of East Bengal, now Bangladesh. He spent his golden days in the quietness of Kuthi Bari in Kushtia, where he translated his famous Gitanjali. Tagore also established an experimental agricultural project at his estate at Patisar in Naogaon. Bengali culture cannot be fulfilled without the colourful presence of Tagore's literature. We will be more enlightened if we apply Tagore's philosophy in our life.

     a) What parts of speech the italicized words are in the text above?
     b) What is an adjective?
     c) What different types of adjectives are there in English?
     d) What roles do adjectives play in a sentence?

Identify appropriate adjectives from the dialogue below :

A: Hello! What are you reading?

B: Good evening! I am reading a book by Rabindranath Tagore.

A: What's the name of the book?

B: I am reading Gitanjali which won him the Nobel Prize in literature.                                                                                      

A: Oh! That's the best poetry book I have ever read.

B: He is known as a World Poet because of the universal appeal of his works and his wonderful style of writing.

A: Tagore is also the writer of our national anthem Amar Sonar Bangla.

B: Yes, he is.

A: We need to read more of his writings. Thank you for the interesting discussion.

B: I think we need to read more books of Tagore. Thank you too.

Now, let's try to describe adjectives.

Adjectives are words that are used to describe nouns and pronouns and to quantify and identify them. For example :

               He was wearing a blue shirt.

Here 'blue' is an adjective as it is describing the noun 'shirt' by answering the question 'What kind of shirt?'

               There are seven rooms in the house.

Here 'seven' is also an adjective as it is mentioning the quantity/the number of the noun 'rooms', answering the question 'how many rooms?'.

There are different types of adjectives based on their relationship with a noun and what they describe about the noun. There are five categories of adjectives:

1. Adjectives of Quality - These adjectives are used to describe the nature of a noun. They give an idea about the nature of the noun by answering the question 'what kind', e.g. honest, kind, large, bulky, beautiful, ugly, etc.

           Dhaka is a large city with many places of historical interest.
           Shaila is a beautiful woman.

2. Adjectives of Quantity - These adjectives help to show the approximate amount of the noun or pronoun. These adjectives do not provide exact numbers; rather they tell us the amount of the noun, e.g. all, half, many, few, little, no, enough, great, etc.

             They have finished most of the rice.
             Many people came to visit the fair.

3. Adjectives of Number - These adjectives are used to show the number of nouns and their position in a phrase. There are three different types within adjectives of number; they are:

             one, two, twenty, thirty-three, etc. (also known as cardinals)
             first, second, third, seventh, etc. (also known as ordinals)

4. Demonstrative Adjectives - These adjectives are used to indicate a - particular noun or pronoun- this, that, these and those.

             That bag belongs to Neela.
             Try using this paintbrush in your art class.
             These flowers are lovely.

5. Interrogative Adjectives - These adjectives are used to ask questions about nouns or pronouns. They are - what, which and whose.

             What test did I miss?
             Which book of this author do you like?
             Whose pen is this?

Lesson 5: Verbs

What are Verbs? You must have read about Verbs in your previous classes. Do you remember their uses?

Let's read the passage below and note the verbs.

All About the Zoo

A zoo is a place where many kinds of animals and birds live together in harmony. Many years ago, animals in a zoo were kept in cages and people would view them from outside their cages. However, these days, things have significantly changed. Most zoos try to provide animals with surroundings that resemble their natural habitat. Many of the endangered species successfully bred in the zoo are later re-introduced to their natural environment to continue their survival. Many of the species are successfully protected and later introduced to the wild. A visit to the zoo will allow you the chance to see many kinds of animals and birds. Zoos help educate people of the importance of conservation. They also help scientists carry out various studies that are aimed to improve the lives of the animals by understanding them better.

Now, talk about the highlighted words with a partner. In pairs discuss the following questions :

     What test did I miss?
     Which book of this author do you like?
     Whose pen is this?

Let's read the above passage again and discuss in pairs and identify verbs from the dialogue below :

A: Hello! Good Morning! 

B: Hello! Good Morning to you too!

A: We have come here to see the zoo.

B: OK, come on, we have good arrangements for children.

A: Thank you! All students will go in a line to see the animals.

B: Please make sure that students don't disturb the animals.

A: Yes, of course, they won't.

B: Thank you, please let them know that zoo animals are not domestic animals.

A: Ok, I'm sure students will be able to know many things about the wild life by visiting the zoo. And thanks a lot for your advice.

B: They will if they remain calm and observe carefully. Thank you all for coming to visit the zoo.

Now, let's try to describe the verbs :

A word or phrase that describes an action, condition or experience is a verb. The words 'run', 'keep', and 'feel' are all verbs. The grammatical forms of verbs include number, person, and tense.

We learnt about auxiliary verbs in our previous classes.

Now, read the following examples and talk with your partner about the uses of different verbs. Here are some examples of auxiliary verbs expressing tense (main verbs in bold)

Examples of Auxiliary Verbs:

• I have been sitting here since 7 o'clock.
• Sabit was waiting for the train to arrive.
• He will have broken the record by then.

Auxiliary Verbs and Verb Phrases :
An auxiliary verb (also called a helping verb) accompanies a main verb to express its tense, mood, or voice. The most common auxiliary verbs are be, do, and have. You will see these in the following forms:

Be : am, is, are, was, were, being, been
Do : does, do, did
Have : has, have, had, having

Modal auxiliary verbs are also auxiliary verbs. They are can, could, may, might, must, ought to, shall, should, will, and would. (These never change their forms.)

A verb phrase is made up of the auxiliary verb(s) and the main verb. In the examples below, the verb phrase is underlined with main verb in bold:

For example, He is reading a book. Here 'is reading' is a verb phrase where 'is'= an auxiliary verb and 'reading,= main verb

Now, let's try to find out the differences between regular and irregular Verbs.

Regular Verbs

Those verbs that form their past participle with 'd' or 'ed' are regular verbs. These verbs do not undergo major changes while changing forms.

1. If the verb ends with a vowel, only 'd' is added. For example :

2. If the verb ends with a consonant, 'ed' is added. For example:

Irregular Verbs

These type of verbs undergo considerable changes when changing forms.

Transitive Verb

When a verb takes an object, it is called transitive verb. Look at the example below:

• He has kicked the ball.
• We shared the idea together.

Here, kick and share are transitive verbs because they have objects and without these objects e. g. the ball, the idea; 'he has kicked and we shared' are incomplete.

In fact, transitive verbs transfer their actions to the object.
Here are some examples of transitive verbs:
I want an apple.
He is carrying a suitcase.
She looked at me.

Intransitive verb

When a verb does not take an object, it is called intransitive verb. Intransitive verb means a verb without an object. Here are some examples of intransitive verbs:

• She shouted loudly.
• She was singing.
• Dogs bark.
• She is laughing.

Some verbs can be both transitive and intransitive depending of how they are used in sentences.

Examples :

Exercise

Choose the correct form of the verb in brackets and fill in the gaps.

Kuheli is a student of class eight. Her final exams (be)_ next week, so there are no classes. Like all the other students in her class she (revise) _ her lessons. But she (not study) _ very hard right now. She (sit) in the garden of her house (read) _ her notes. It is a beautiful day. Birds (sing) _ in the trees. She (not sit/usually) _ in the garden. Normally she (go)_ the garden. Normally she (go) _ to school at nine o'clock to (attend) _ classes. She (have). lunch at about one with her friends. 

Lesson 6: Adverbs

Read the story below and notice the words in italics that describe the actions in the story.

I nearly missed my flight!

I live at Shahbag in Dhaka. I decided to visit my son, who lives in New York in December last year. I had booked my flight to leave Dhaka on Monday morning. It was due to leave at 9 am and I was expected to report at the airport by 7 am. I was completely happy with arrangements I had made for the trip.

I work in an office and usually go there at about 9 am. I never go to office late and I almost always arrive there on time. I come back home at about 5 pm. I usually go to bed at 11 at night and get up at 5 in the morning.

The night before my flight I had to do a bit of packing. Still I expected to get up from bed at my usual time. Unfortunately, I overslept and when my wife woke me up it was 7 am. I quickly washed and dressed myself and called for a taxi. I was hoping to get to the airport by 8 am. But as we reached the Airport Road, it was crowded with cars, buses and taxis and we could only move very slowly. I was gradually becoming impatient. But there was nothing we could do. I finally reached the airport at 8.30 am.

I reached the check-in-desk and an official of the airlines hurried me through the immigration, and eventually I was able to get on board.

Discuss in pairs which of the Italisized words tell us about the 'how,' 'when' or 'where' of an action that took place in the story.

Write down the underlined words in each column to show which of them answer the how, when, why or where of an action in the story. (One is done for you in each column.)

The words above are used to answer the questions of how, when, why or where. These are adverbs. In fact, an adverb is a word that modifies a verb, an adjective or another adverb. It also refers to manner, place, time, degree or frequency.

Look at the following examples. Here adverbs are shown in bold and the verbs that they modify are in italics.

• Rabbi speaks loudly. (How does Rabbi speak?)
• Afterwards she talked with the journalists. (When did she talk?)
• Dilruba lives nearby. (Where does Dilruba live?)

Look at the examples of adverbs that modify adjectives and adverbs. Adverbs modifying an adjective:

• He is really handsome. (How handsome is he?)
• That was extremely kind of you.

Adverbs modifying another adverb:

• She drives incredibly slowly. (How slowly does she drive?)
• - He drives extremely fast.

Remember that adverbs can also modify adjectives or even other adverbs. Look at the sentences below.

• Tania is really beautiful.
• The plan worked very well.

Note that adverbs have other functions too. Now look at the sentences below and find out what functions the adverbs have in these sentences.

• Obviously I don't know everything.
• He arrived immediately after the meeting.

You may have noticed two more functions of adverbs here, e.g. they can modify a whole sentence and they can modify a prepositional phrase.

Exercise 1

Find the adjective in the first sentence of each pair of sentences below and fill in the gap with an adverb. The first one is done as an example.

1. Jhorna is happy. She smiles happily.
2. The boy is loud. He shouts ……………….
3. Her English is fluent. She speaks English .......……….
4. Our mother was angry. She spoke to us ................
5. My neighbour is a careless driver. He drives …………..
6. The painter is awful. He paints ……………….
7. Zahir is a wonderful guitar player. He plays the guitar ……………
8. This girl is very quiet. She often keeps sitting at a corner …………….
9. She is a quick runner. She runs....................
10. 10.This exercise is simple. You ................. have to put one word in each space.

Notice the adverbs you have used in the above sentences. In pairs, discuss how adverbs are formed. Now read the following section to know more about how adverbs are formed.

Most of the adverbs are formed by adding ly with an adjective. For example, the word nice is an adjective and we can make the adverb nicely to talk about an action that is done in a nice manner.

As you have seen so far, adverbs frequently end in -ly; however, some adjectives also end in ly. For example: lovely, lonely, motherly, friendly, neighbourly are adjectives. For example:

                              That lovely woman lives in a friendly neighborhood.

Some adverbs have two forms, one that ends in -ly and one that doesn't. In certain cases, the two forms have different meanings.

Examples:

   He arrived late. (later than the scheduled time) 

   Lately, he couldn't seem to be on time for anything. (recently)

In pairs, try to find more adverbs having two forms with two different meanings. Make sentences with them and share with another pair.

Position of Adverbs
Read the sentences below and notice the position of adverbs in each sentence.

1. Cheerfully the gold medalist greeted the crowd.
2. The gold medallist cheerfully greeted the crowd.
3. The gold medalist greeted the crowd cheerfully.

Now discuss the two questions in pairs:

• Do all these adverbs have the same position in the above sentences?
• What positions does the adverb cheerfully take in each sentence?

Let's read the following section to know more about positions that can be taken by adverbs in a sentence.

Adverbs can appear in various positions in a sentence. For example, you may find an adverb:

• before the main verb: I never get up before nine o'clock.
• between the auxiliary verb and the main verb: I have rarely written to my father without an emergency.
• before the verb used to: I always used to see him at his summer home.

Exercise 2

Fill in the blanks with suitable adverbs from the box. The same adverb can be used more than once:

1. I _ go to school at 9 o'clock.
2. I have _ been to Germany.
3. I have been to Kuakata just _.
4. I _ have a cup of tea after breakfast.
5. My friends are _ vegetarians.
6. My grandparents live in Khulna. I visit them 
7. I was _ happy to see him again.
8. I _ go for a walk by the river side.
9. I watch films _.
10. They _ come to visit me.

Lesson 7 : Types of adverbs

Look at the picture. What is it about? Can you remember a cricket match in which you saw some great catches?

In small groups discuss a recent cricket match in which you have seen some great catches taken by the fielding side. Talk about those actions of catching by answering the following questions:

1. How were the catches taken?
2. Where in the field were the catches taken?
3. How many times did they drop a catch?
4. When were the catches taken?

You might have noticed that adverbs are used to describe various aspects of a particular action - the time, place, manner or frequency of the action. Thus adverbs are categorised as follows :

1. Adverbs of manner
2. Adverbs of place
3. Adverbs of time
4. Adverbs of frequency

Adverbs of manner

Read the following seven pieces of advice on making a happy and successful life. Notice the words ending in ly. Can you tell what kinds of words they are?

Think creatively
Live adventurously
Work diligently
Share generously
Listen patiently
Try fearlessly
Laugh heartily
Help willingly
Speak graciously
Run steadily
Love completely

                                                                                                                  [collected]

The words ending with ly are examples of adverbs. But do you know what kind of adverbs they are? They are known as adverbs of manner.

An adverb of manner tells us how something happens or is done. Most adverbs of manner end in-ly such as badly, happily, sadly, slowly, quickly. There are also some adverbs that do not end in -ly. For example: well, hard, fast, etc.
Here you have more examples to see how the adverbs of manner have been used.

• The soldiers were badly injured in the battle.
• They had to act fast to save the others floating in the water.
• She is 60 but still sings very well.
• She speaks loudly.
• The new driver was driving slowly.

Exercise 1    

Choose a word from brackets to fill in the gaps. The first one is done as an example.

1. They did the work beautifully. (beautiful / beautifully)
2. She planned their trip to Italy very _ (careful / carefully)
3. He painted the wall very _ (bad / badly)
4. She speaks very _ (quiet / quietly)
5. He walked _ along the road to school. (slow/slowly)
6. He drives too _. (fast/well)
7. She knows the road _. (good / well)
8. He plays the guitar. _ (terrible / terribly)
9. We will catch the train in the morning. So we have to get up _. (early / late)

Adverbs of place

An adverb of place tells us where something is done or happens. We use it after the verb, object or at the end of a sentence.

Adverbs of place include words such as above, below, here, outside, over there, there, under, upstairs, near, somewhere, outside, ahead, on the top, at some place.

1. We can stop here for lunch.
2. The hospital is over there on your right.
3. The classroom is on the floor below.
4. The children are playing outside.
5. He was standing near the wall.
6. There was a house on the top of the hill.
7. He lives somewhere in Dhaka.
8. She went upstairs.

Exercise 2

Make sentences and put the adverbs (in italics) in them correctly. The first one is done as an example.

1. is / over there / the cinema -The cinema is over there.
2. inside/go/let's ________________________________
3. the kitchen/downstairs / is _____________________________
4. playing/the kids/are / outside- ______________________________
5. she/not/been / here / has _______________________________
6. the bathroom/is/upstairs _________________________________
7. were / everywhere / we /for/looking/you __________________________
8. we / anywhere / you /find/ couldn't __________________________
9.  ?/ there / a post office / nearby / is _____________________________
10. must/we/walk / back home ______________________________

Adverbs of time

An adverb of time tells us the time when something happens. We use it at the beginning or at the end of a sentence. We use it as a form of emphasis when we place it at the beginning.

Adverbs of time include afterwards, already, always, immediately, last month, now, still, soon, then, yesterday, tomorrow, today, tonight, again and early.

1. He went for a walk yesterday.
2. He got a new job a few months ago.
3. Last week, we went to our village home.
4. I will buy a computer tomorrow.
5. Do it now.
6. She is still waiting for her brother.
7. He got up early in the morning.

Exercise 3

Fill in the blanks with the suitable time adverb. Do not use WHEN or IN

1. Titanic is the most beautiful film I have …………………………….. seen.
2. People of Bangladesh are ……………………………… in favour of democracy.
3. The wedding was celebrated in a community hall and …………………………… a party.
4. It's only fifty years ……………………………. the computer was invented.
5. People ………………………. believed that women were inferior to men.
6. Many painters ……………………….. go to Paris to get inspiration.

Adverbs of frequency

Read the following conversation between friends about watching movies. Notice the words in italics. What do these words tell us about their frequency of going to the cinema?

Rajib : Hi Subrata, I saw you the other day in front of Star Cinema. Do you often go to the cinema?

Subrata : Not really. I don't go to the cinema quite often. But I always watch movies at home.

Sumona : I also don't go to the cinema regularly. But sometimes I watch good films on television.

Rajib : But don't you think that cinema halls are ideal places for watching films? You can never have the atmosphere of a cinema hall at your home.

Subrata : I agree with you. Cinema halls are always better. But we can't go to cinema halls every week. We actually go to the cinema once in a month.

Sumona : You are lucky Subrata. I hardly ever go to the cinema. I actually go there very rarely.

An adverb of frequency tells us how often something is done or happens. Words used as adverbs of frequency include again, almost, always, ever, frequently, generally, hardly ever, nearly, nearly always, never, occasionally, often, rarely, seldom, sometimes, twice, usually, daily, sometimes, often, monthly, yearly and weekly.

Look at some more examples of adverb of frequency.

1. While overseas, he frequently phoned home.
2. We only write to each other very occasionally.
3. Sometimes he goes to the cinema to see a film.
4. He phoned me twice on the same day.
5. He goes to school daily.
6. She is never late for class.
7. They always come in time.
8. Barking dogs seldom bite.
9. The employees are usually paid monthly.

Exercise 4

Complete the following sentences using appropriate adverbs. Choose your answers from the options given in the brackets.

1. He was driving ………………….. . and crashed into the car in front. (carefully / carelessly)
2.  …………………………………… . the tiger appeared from nowhere. (suddenly / slowly)
3. The rain poured …………………………………… . and we took shelter under a tree. (heavily / lightly)
4. The teacher told a funny story and the children laughed ………………………… . (loudly / softly)
5. The dancers performed …………………………  and we all clapped. (gracefully / clumsily)
6. Why are you shouting …………………………… . (loudly/quietly)?
7. She has a sweet voice. She sings …………………………. . (beautifully/ badly)
8. Don't take a decision ……………………………. think it over for sometime. (hastily / slowly)
9. The soldiers fought so …………………………… that the enemy troops fled.  (slowly / fast)

Lesson 8: Prepositions

What are prepositions? You must have read about prepositions in your previous classes. Do you remember their uses? Now, let's read the passage below and note the prepositions.

We and Our Environment

Our environment comes from water, air, animals, wastes, plants, and other things that surround us. The environment is a combination of many things. All the things in the environment relate with each other to give us what we need for survival. The environment is important and we should all aim to protect it by avoiding bad practices such as pollution, cutting down of trees and any other human activities that cause the degradation of the environment. Being aware of surroundings helps us take the right steps to protect it. As living things we interact with the environment and not just live in it. Natural disasters such as earthquakes, landslides, etc. affect the environment. The environment needs to be protected by all means and the right measures need to be taken to lessen the damage that natural disasters cause.

Read the following dialogue and notice the highlighted words. In pairs discuss which preposition is expressed by each of the highlighted words.

A : Good morning! How are you today?

B : Good Morning! I am fine. How are you?

A : I am excellent today as I saw the sun rising in the morning.

B : Oh! I couldn't rise early but I felt sorry to see open dustbin at the corner of the road while I was coming over here.

A : That's really bad; open dustbins spread diseases in the air and when we inhale the air we feel sick.

B : Besides vehicles on the road cause environmental pollution.

A : The brick fields in the villages also cause pollution by emitting smoke.

B : What can we do about this environmental pollution?

A : We should be friendly with our environment.

B : Yes, we have to be careful to protect it. Thank you!

Now, let's read the following examples of prepositions to learn about various uses of prepositions in our daily conversations.

Prepositions of place

1. in, at, and on are the most common propositions of place. Words we use to say where something or someone is or where an action takes place :

     I was in the kitchen when you phoned.
     I'll be at home from seven this evening.
     The keys are on the kitchen table.

2. Here are some more examples of prepositions of place.

     I was outside the building.
     I could see people inside it.

     Your keys are under the table.
     There were clouds above us.

             A man in a suit was sitting next to/beside me and a girl was sitting opposite me.

     There is a tree in front of the house.
     The drummer was behind other musicians.

Look at the following examples:

1. We use in with streets, cities, districts and countries:

          She lives in Eskaton/in Dhaka/ in Bangladesh.

 We use in the with regions (the north, etc.): 

          They live in the south of Spain.

 We use at with addresses:

          I live at 20, New Eskaton.

2. We use in the with rooms:

          My mom is in the kitchen now.
We use in a/an /the/my, etc. with other enclosed places:
          She gave me the Letter in an envelop.
          My dresses are in the cupboard.

We use on the with surfaces:

          There was dust on the floor.

          The books are on the table. 

  We use on the second floor, etc. to talk about part of a building: 

          My flat is on the third floor.

3. We use at home, at work, at school, at university to talk about being in the place where we live, work, or study:

     I was at work/at home yesterday.
     Sabit is at school and he will be taking his exams soon.

But we say in hospital, in prison to talk about a patient or a prisoner in those places:

     Fatema is very ill and she is in hospital.

4. We use at the to describe being in or using a building:

     Some friends met me at the airport.
     You can buy this at the super market.

Exercise A

Now let's read the following story where an office worker describes her working place. Complete her description by putting in the correct prepositions.

Where I work

I work _ Dhaka, which is a capital city of Bangladesh. It is _ the south of Dhaka. The place where I work is _ the centre of the city. To be exact, it is _ 1/New Baily Road. My office is _ the $5^{th}$ floor of a big ancient building. When I am _ work, I usually stay _ my office doing my work _ my desk.

Exercise B

Now, let's read the following description of a party to complete the passage by putting in the correct prepositions from the box below :

The house I live in

I live in the New Market area _ Teachers' Training College. _ of it there is a government degree college. I live in a flat. There is a lot open space _ the building. _ the building, there is a prayer room. There is a shopping mall _ our building. Near the flat there is a commercial bank and a medicine store. You can see a big tree just _ our building and a tea stall _ it. We can see the sky _ our flat at night full of stars.

Now, we will learn different uses of prepositions. Read the following examples with your partner and try to find out the differences.

Prepositions of movement

1. Look at the sentences about movement:

        He walked out of the house. 

        He got into his car.

        He drove across the road.

        He drove under a bridge. 

        He drove through a tunnel. 

        He drove along the motorway.

        He drove up a hill.

        He drove down the hill. 

        He drove around the corner

        He drove onto a ferry.

        He drove off the ferry. 

        He drove towards the city.

2. We use these phrases to talk about transport and travelling:

     by car/train/plane/boat/bus/taxi

     I'll be at home from seven this evening.
     The keys are on the kitchen table.

      on foot
      We went to the nearby market on foot.
      in the /my, etc. car
      We went to the station in our car.
      on my, etc. bike
      He goes to work on his bike.

      on the train/plane/bus/boat
      She travelled to Chittagong on the train.
      in a taxi
      She went there in a taxi.

Exercise C

Read the following passage silently. A school boy is describing her journey from home every morning. Complete her description by putting in the correct prepositions. You may need to use the same preposition more than once.

My Journey to School

I live in a village named Chowkibari _ Pabna district. It is _ the river Isamoti. My school is about three kilometres _ my home. I have to cross the river _ boat and walk all the way _ school. Most of my friends also go to school on foot _ me. Our school stands _ the highway to Pabna. Our school building is two storied. I enter the school _ the main gate. Our class is on the first floor. _ the holidays, we do not go _ school and we either play _ the village field or swim _ the river.

More examples of prepositions
In, with, by, without

1. Some example sentences with in, by, with and without.

• She goes to school in a uniform.
• A man with a beard came into the room.
• By studying hard, you can pass in the exams without failing.

We use in with clothes to describe what somebody is wearing:

• She went out in a saree.
• He went to the school in his new uniform.

We use with to talk about of a person's body or parts of an animal's body:

• She is a little girl with long hair and black eyes.
• He went to the school in his new uniform.

We use with to talk about of a person's body or parts of an animal's body:

• She is a little girl with long hair and black eyes.
• A giraffe is an animal with a very long neck.

We use with to talk about part of an object or one thing that is included in something:

       My father has got a suitcase with wheels.
       The room is full of shelves with books in them.
       We use with to talk about using something in order to do an action: 

       I cleaned my teeth with my new toothbrush.
       I cleaned the floor with a piece of cloth.

1. We use by + .… ing to talk about how people do things, and actions that produce particular results:

   You can change the temperature by turning this switch on.

2. We use without + …. ing to talk about not doing something. We often use without + ing to say that we are surprised that an action does not happen but we expect it to happen:

She left the house without closing the door. (= and she didn't close the door)

Exercise D

A teacher is giving instructions to a class about a trip to a museum the next day. Complete what the teacher says, using the correct prepositions.

1. Come _ your own lunch boxes.
2. I want you to get into the bus _ making lot of noise.
3. We are going to see things in the museum _ a guide.
4. There will be a quiz _ 20 questions on them.
5. You will answer the questions _ finding the information in the museum.
6. _ answering all the questions correctly, you may win a prize.

Exercise E

1. My brother has a very interesting job.
   My brother is a person _

2. When he goes to work, he wears a uniform.
    He goes to work _

3. He works for a company. It has about 50 employees.
    He works for a company _

4. He has an office. It has a view of the city.
    He has an office _

5. Sometimes he works all day and he doesn't stop for lunch.
    Sometimes he works all day _

6. My brother's job has a good salary.
    My brother has a job _

Prepositions of Time: at, in, on

We use :

• at for a precise time
• in for months, years, centuries and long periods
• on for days and dates

Look at these examples :

• I have a meeting at 9 am.
• The shop closes at midnight.
• Jane went home at lunchtime.
• In England, it often snows in December.
• There would be a lot of progress in the next century.
• Do you work on Mondays?
• Her birthday is on 20 November.
• Where will you be on New Year's Day?

Notice the use of the preposition of time at in the following expressions:

Notice the use of the prepositions of time in and on in the following expressions :

When we say last, next, every, this we do not use at, in, on.

• Father went to London last June. (not in last June)
• He's coming back next Tuesday. (not on next Tuesday)
• We go to our village every Eid. (not at every Eid)
• We'll call you this evening. (not in this evening)

Lesson 1 : Introducing Modals

Read the story of Helen Keller below. Notice the underlined words. When you finish reading, discuss the questions that follow.

The story of Helen Keller, the girl who could not see, hear or speak I'd like you to know the story of Helen Keller, who could neither see nor hear from the time she was a baby. Yet the brilliant girl was able to overcome all those difficulties, to graduate from a college with honours and become a useful citizen. I must say there was nothing wrong with Helen Keller when she was born. Her father and mother were very proud of their pretty baby, who tried to say "pa-pa" and "ma-ma". For nineteen months Helen grew bigger and stronger. She was able to walk when she was a year old; she could say a few words. But one day the child fell ill. She must have been very ill. For days she had been suffering from high fever and soon the parents learned that their darling would never be able to see and hear. When Helen was 6 years old, her parents took her to famous doctors to find out if they could do something to make her hear and see again, but the doctors could do nothing. The child was hopelessly deaf. Dr. Bell said that Kellers should write to the Perkins Institution for the blind in Boston and ask if they would send someone to help the child.                                                                                         (adapted)

1. What meanings do the underlined words convey?

2. Can you understand what mood/emotion is expressed by each of these words?

3. Can you change the forms of these words?

Read the Dialogue below and notice the underlined words. A list of various functions is given In the box. In pairs discuss what function Is expressed by each of the underlined words.

Dialogue : A Visit to London

A : What do you think I ought to see in London first?
B : Well, historical places, I think. You should go to the Westminster Abbey, and if you can, go to the Houses of Parliament and the National Gallery.

A : And what about the British Museum? I was told one ought to see It.

B : I suppose you must go there. There you can find masterpieces of the world's best artists.

A : How can I get to the centre?

B: I think you can go by steamer down the Thames from Westminster to Tower Bridge. That's a very pleasant way to travel, and you can see the London Bridge and quite a number of buildings on the way.

[adaptad]

You might have noticed that the underlined words such as can, could, may, might, must, ought to, shall, should, will, and would, do not change form for different subjects. These are special verbs which behave irregularly in English. They are different from normal verbs like 'work, play, visit' They give additional Information about the function of the main verb that follows it. They have a great variety of communicative functions. They are known as Modals (also called modal verbs, modal auxilary verbs, modal auxillaries)

In the story and the dialogue above, the underlined words that you have come across are examples of modals. While discussing questions 1-4 above, what characteristics of modals have you talked about?

Read about the characteristics of modals and compare them with what you have discussed.

Some characteristics of modal verbs:

• They never change their form. You can't add 's', 'ed', 'ing'.
• They are always followed by an Infinitive without 'to' (except in phrases like ought to).
• They are used to express certainty, possibility, willingness, obligation, necessity, ability.

Read the dialogues below. How many modals can you find? Do they have the characteristics discussed above?

Dialogues : Asking the Way

A : Excuse me. Can you tell me where Panthapath is, please?

B: Take the second turn on the left and then ask again.

A: Is It far?

B: No, you can walk it in ten minutes.

A: Thank you very much.

B: It's a pleasure.

A: Excuse me, please. Could you tell me how to get to the Novo Theatre?

B: Sure, go straight, take the first right turn and then the second left. You can't miss it.

A: Thank you.

B: That's OK.

So, what different modals are there in English? By now you should be able to make a list of the modal verbs. Here is one :

Also you must have noticed some verbs of expressions such as dare, ought to, had better, and need not in the above story or dialogues. They often behave like modal auxillaries and may be added to the list of modals.

Remember, modal verbs are used to express functions such as:

1. permission
2. ability
3. obligation
4. prohibition
5. lack of necessity
6. advice
7. possibility
8. probability

Exercise :

Underline modals in the dialogues below. Tell your partner what function or emotion is expressed by each modal.

Dialogue 1: At Lunch

A : Would you like one more parata? 

B : No, thanks. I'm on a diet.

A: Please, do. You've hardly eaten anything. 

B: It's delicious, but I don't think I ought to.

Dialogue 2 : In a Restaurant

Waiter: Can I take your order, sir? 

Mr. X: Rice and vegetables for me, please.

Waiter: May I take your order, sir? 

Mr. N: Yes, I'd like to try the kebab, please.

Dialogue 3 

A : I mustn't forget to phone Jafar.

B : Why?

A : It's his birthday tomorrow.

Dialogue 4

A : You look tired. What's the matter? 

B : It's been a very busy week.

A : You should have a good rest during the weekend.

Dialogue 5

A : Can you play tennis?

B : Yes, I can, a little. Can you?

A : No, I'm afraid, I can't, but I can play badminton quite well.

Lesson 2 : Uses of Modals

Uses of can and could

Work in pairs. Tell your partner what you can do now using the computers and the Internet. Also talk about what you were not able to do when computers and the Internet were not a part of your life.

Notice how you have used can/can't and could/couldn't in your talk. What differences do you notice between can and could?

Read the review of a new model of mobile phone. Make a list of the things you can do with this phone.

Read the dialogues below and discuss the questions that follow.

Dialogue 1

A : Hello, friend. I need some help with my typing.

B : What type of help do you need?

A : I have to type a text in Bangla but I don't know how to type in Bangla.

B : No problem, I can help you with that. It's easy to type in Bangla. I can type 50 words per minute now.

A : That's great. How long have you been practising it? In fact I could not type in Bangla even two years ago. But I practised hard and now I can type quickly and easily.

                                  Dialogue 2

                                         A: Hello, friend, Can you help me?
                                         B: Sure. What can I do for you?
                                         A: My phone is out of balance and I need to call my home now. Could I use your mobile phone?
                                         B: Certainly, here is my phone.

Have you noticed the various ideas/modes expressed by can/could? Discuss the following questions :

1. How do the speakers in Dialogue 1 talk about their past and present abilities/inabilities?
2. How do the people in Dialogue 2 talk to give or ask for permission?

Now, read the following section to know more about the uses of can/could. 

The modal auxiliary can is used

• to express ability (in the sense of being able to do something or knowing how to do something): He can speak Spanish but he can't write it very well.
• to express permission (in the sense of being allowed or permitted to do something): Can I talk to my friends in the library waiting room?
• to express possibility: (in the sense that something may happen) Bangladeshi cricketers can do better if they play more international matches.

The modal auxiliary could is used

• to express an ability in the past : I could run five miles when I was young.
• to ask for permission : Could I borrow your laptop for an hour?
• to express present possibility : We could spend the afternoon just sitting around and talking.
• to express possibility or ability within a given condition : If he studied harder, he could pass the exam.

Exercise 1

Complete the sentences below with can/could. Also discuss the meaning expressed by can/could in each sentences. You need to use the negatives (can't/couldn't) where necessary.

1. She doesn't want to go to the swimming pool because she …………………… swim.
2. We are going to the cinema tonight. You ……………………. come with us if you want to.
3. Excuse me Sir, …………………………. please tell me where the railway station is?
4. I am sure she …………………………… play the guitar better when she was younger.
5. It is hot in here, ………………………… you open the window, please?
6. He worked so hard! He ………………… pass his exam if he had not missed his train and got there late.
7. Oh Mom! You have made a cake! I …………………… smell it when I entered the kitchen.

Uses of may and might

Read the sentences below and notice the uses of may/might. Discuss in pairs the functions of may and might in each sentence.

1. Take your umbrella as it may rain today.
2. He is still at work! He may come home late I'm afraid.
3. Jamil couldn't repair his fridge; he might have asked his neighbour.
4. They talked too loudly. They might have woken the baby!
5. Look at those clouds! It may rain in a minute.

Now, read the section below to check when and where we use may/might.

Might is the past tense of may when used in the context of granting or seeking permission. Also note that might is considerably more uncertain than may.

Example :

• May I leave class early?
• If I finish all my work, I might leave early.

Exercise 2

Fill in the blanks with can/could/may/might as needed.

1. They (can/might) ……………………….. be away for the weekend but I'm not sure.
2. You (may/might) …………………....... leave now if you like.
3. (Could/May) …………………………. you open the window a bit, please?
4. He (can/could) ……………………….. be a foreigner. He speaks differently.
5. (May/Can) ………………………… you play the piano?
6. They (can't/may not) .................. still be out! There is light in their room.
7. Let's hope, tomorrow (can/could) …………………….. be a sunny day. It has been raining for few days.
8. You (can/might) ........................ be right but I'm going back to check anyway.

Uses of should, must and have to

Ann is asking Tom for advice on going to Russia. It is her first time to travel abroad. Now read the dialogue between Anne and Tom and notice the uses of should/must/have to.

Tom : Hey Ann, you look worried. What's up? Ann : Well I'm a little worried about going abroad for the first time. It's Moscow and I'm a bit unsure of things. You've been there, haven't you? Can you tell me what I need, or give me some advice or something? Tom : Yeah, I have been there a few times. Well, you must have a passport, but I guess you have it. Ann : Yes, I have one. What else do I need? Tom : You have to get a visa from the Russian embassy. Ann : Well that's fine. Is there anything else I need to know? Tom : Well, it's winter and Moscow can become very cold, so you should take some warm clothes with you. Ann : OK, thanks. You've given me a lot of information. [adapted]

It's 8.15 am and the school starts at 8.00 am. Tohin's mother is talking to him. Notice how she uses should/must/have to.

1. You must be at school by this time.
2. You stay away from school, it's bad for your education. It's also against the rules.
3. You don't have to take a bus, I'll drive you to school.
4. You should go to bed earlier at night. You'd feel more relaxed in the morning.

Read the following situations and fill in the gaps with should/must/have to. Ratan looks very pale and tired.

1. He ..……….......... rest a little before supper. It would do him good.
2. He …………………. study so hard, he knows his lessons very well.
3. He …………………… try to be less scared of tests. He wouldn't suffer so much.
4. He ……….............. be very worried about tomorrow's Maths exam.

Rosy said she would invite me to her party but she didn't.

1. She ........…… make false promises.
2. You …………… get offended, she may have forgotten to ring you up.
3. You get offended, she may have forgotten to ring you up. think there's something wrong with you. It was Rosy's mistake.
4. If you don't go to her party, you ............... buy her a present.

Look, there's going to be heavy rain soon.

1. We ……………. hurry home. I think it would be better and safer.
2. We ….......... stand under a tree. It's not safe.
3. Look, there's a man selling umbrellas. We …….......... buy one.

Discuss in pairs when and where you may use must/should/have to. Then read the section below to check your understanding.

Must is the most commonly used modal to express certainty. It can also be used to express necessity or strong recommendation, although people often use the form 'have to'.

One may use must not to prohibit actions, but this sounds very strong or rude. It is better to use softer modal verbs such as should not or ought not to discourage something rather than prohibit.

Examples :

• This must be the right address! (certainty)
• Students must pass an admission to study at this school. (necessity)
• You must take some medicine for that cough. (strong recommendation)
• Jenny, you must not play in the street! (prohibition)

Must not vs. Do not have to

Must not suggests that you are prohibited from doing something. Do not have to suggest that someone is not required to do something.

Examples :

• You must not eat that. (It is forbidden, it is not allowed.)
• You don't have to eat that. (You can if you want to, but it is not necessary)

Should is most commonly used to make recommendations or give advice. It can also be used to express obligation as well as expectation.

Examples :

• When you go to Agra, you should see the Taj. (recommendation)
• You should focus more on study and less on games. (advice)
• I really should be in the class by 9.00 am. (obligation)
• By now, they should already be in Dhaka. (expectation)

Have to is used to express certainty, necessity, and obligation.

Examples :

• This answer has to be correct. (certainty)
• The milk has to be stirred continuously to prevent burning. (necessity)
• They have to leave early. (obligation)

Ought to is used to advise or make recommendations. Ought to also expresses assumption or expectation as well as strong probability, often with the idea that something is desirable. Ought not (without 'to') is used to advise against doing something.

Examples :

• You ought to stop smoking. (recommendation) 
• Robi ought to get the promotion. (It is expected because he deserves it.)
• This piece of land ought to increase in value. (probability)
• You ought not waste your time. (advice against doing something)

Exercise 3

Complete the sentences using the italicized words below. Positive and negative forms can be used. Some gaps may have more than one answer.

1. Ruma said you didn't need to buy her anything for her birthday, but I really think you ……………………......... at least get her some flowers.
2. Deeba said she was really busy this week, but I think she …...........………………... show up at the party.
3. You …………………………..be joking! That can't be true.
4. For most people, learning a language is not so easy. You ………………………….. practise the language regularly.
5. I would love to go on the cruise on the Buriganga with some of my classmates. But such a luxurious trip .....................……... be expensive.
6. We ………………………….. to get permission from the Headmaster if we want to organize a picnic.

Uses of shall, will and would

Make five promises expressing your strong willingness or determination to do something.

Example : I shall never be late at school.

Promises to keep

1. ……………………………………………………………………………………………
2. ……………………………………………………………………………………………
3. ……………………………………………………………………………………………
4. ……………………………………………………………………………………………
5. ……………………………………………………………………………………………

Now, read the following sections to know about the use of will/would.

In certain contexts, will and would are interchangeable, but there are differences. Notice that the contracted form '// is very frequently used for will.

Will can be used to express willingness:

• I'll wash the dishes if you dry them up.
• We're going to the movies. Will you join us?

It can also express intention (especially in the first person):

          I'll do my exercises later on.

It can also express prediction:

• specific: The meeting will be over soon.
• timeless: Too much rain will destroy crops.

Would can also be used to express willingness:

• Would you please take off your coat?

Look at the table and see the meaning, function and uses of modals

Exercise 4

Complete the sentences using the words listed in the box below. Don't forget to capitalise when necessary. Some gaps may have more than one correct answer.

1. Akram's flight from Rome took more than 11 hours. He .................…………….. be exhausted after such a long flight. He prefer to stay at home tonight and get some rest.
2. When you have a small child in the house, you …..................…………. leave small objects lying around. Such objects ……………………………… hurt the child.
3. Amjad: …………………………….. you hold your breath for more than a minute? Nasim: No, I can't.
4. Joyeta's engagement ring is enormous! It ………………………………. have cost a fortune.
5. Please water my plants while I am away. If they don't get enough water, they ......……………………… die.
6. I ………………………….. speak Arabic fluently when I was a child and we lived in Saudi Arabia.
7. You ………………………….... take your umbrella along with you today. The weather forecast said there …………………………….... rain later of this afternoon.
8. Oh no! Faisal's wallet is lying on the dining table. He …………………………….. have left it here last night.
9. I was reading the book last night before I went to bed. I never took it out of this room. It ……………………………………….. .be lying around here somewhere. Where ……………………………………….. it be?

Lesson 1 : Articles

What are articles? You must have read about articles in your previous classes. Do you remember their uses? Let's read the story below and notice the articles in italics.

An Ideal Farm

It is less than an hour away from Dhaka. It's on the way to Chandra from EPZ at Savar. It is a place that stands in sharp contrast to our dusty, noisy and crowded capital. The eye soothing greenery of the farmhouse 'Kalpana' on 30-acres of land is a place of absolute calm. Here butterflies fly among the flowers while grasshoppers hover over grass and rice fields. White clouds float above the head and birds glide gracefully in the sky increasing the quietness of the farmhouse. But there is more to this farm than just being an oasis of quietness. The farm uses a new technique that excludes the use of any kind of chemicals.

Now, talk about the bold words in the text with a partner. In pairs discuss the following questions :

a) What is an article?
b) What different types of articles are there in English?
c) What roles do articles play in a sentence?

Now, read the above text again and discuss in pairs the purpose and use of articles printed in bold. Then compare your answer with the following text.

An article is a word that is used before a noun to show whether the noun refers to something specific or not. A, an and the are articles.

Look at some more examples of articles:

Examples :

I need a chair.

In the sentence above we find the article 'a'. It shows us that the speaker does not need a specific chair. He can have any chair.

Can I have an apple, please?
In the sentence above we find the article 'an'. It shows us that the speaker does not want any specific apple. He can have any apple.

I want the apple on the books.
In the sentence above we find the article 'the'. It shows us that the speaker wants a specific apple.

You know that in English, there are two kinds of articles. Now, let's have a clear idea about them

The Definite Article
For example: The box is small.

The definite article tells us that the noun is specific. By using a definite article, the speaker talks about a particular (or known) thing. The definite article In English is 'the.'

Examples :

     The car my father bought broke down.

     He has a son and a daughter. The daughter Is a doctor.

     The actors were really good. 

     I remember the day I first met you.

The can be used before both singular and plural nouns.

Examples :

      The pen she gave me was very beautiful. 

      The flowers on the table are nice.

The Indefinite Article
For example:
I need a box

The indefinite article tells us that the noun is not specific. The speaker talks about any one of that type of thing.

The indefinite articles in English are 'a' and 'an.'

Examples :

               I need a pen.

(The speaker doesn't tell us which pen s/he needs. S/he simply needs a pen, any pen.)

             Liza wants to see a movie.

             (The speaker doesn't tell us which movie Liza wants to see. She wants to see any movie.)

             Mr. Alam has a car. 

             (The speaker doesn't tell us which car Mr. Alam has. He has a car, unspecific - no details are given.)

             She is a dancer.
             (She dances professionally.)

Now, let's find out the different uses of a and an. 'A' and 'an' have the same meaning.

We use "a" before a consonant sound but 'an' before a vowel sound.

Now compare:

We use 'a' and 'an' only before a singular noun. We cannot use 'a' and 'an' before a plural noun.

Examples :
Correct : a car. [correct]
Incorrect : a cars. [incorrect]
Correct : an orange. [correct]
Incorrect : a oranges [incorrect]

More examples of articles

1. Examples of sentences with a/an and the:
               They live in a big house.
               They live in the big house on the corner.

2. We can use a/an with a singular noun:
               I bought a book.

3. We can use the with singualr and plural nouns:
               I put the ticket in my pocket.
               I paid for the tickets in cash.

4. We often use an adjective after a/an or the before a noun:
               I bought a cheap ticket.
               The cheap tickets are sold out.

Other uses of articles :

1. We use a/an to talk about something for the first time.
       e.g. I saw Avik yesterday. He was wearing a T-shirt.

2. We use the with a singular noun to talk about something we have already mentioned. Here, the speaker gives more information about something.
       e.g. Avik was wearing a new T- shirt. The T-shirt had red stripes.

3. We use a/an to talk about one thing or person when there are many and we are not specifying which one. We are not interested in which one or we don't know which one.
       e.g. I bought this dress in a shop last week.( the dress is important, not the shop)

4. We use the when we are specifying which thing or person we are talking about.
      e.g. I bought this dress from the shop next to the library. (Which shop?The shop next to the library.)

5. We use the if it is clear what we are talking about and there are no other possibilities:
       e.g. The players are coming onto the field.(= the players of this match and the court for this match)

We use a/an for a type of job:
           My brother is a doctor. (not....is doctor.)

We use the for a specific job or job title that only one person has:
           His father is the Managing Director of this company.

Exercise :

Now, let's complete this description of a birthday by putting a or the into the gaps. The first one is done for you.

Exercise : Complete this text by putting a, an or the in the gaps

Some examples with a/an, the and no article:
     That's a nice song.
     I like the music in that film.
     I like listening to music.(music in general, so no article)
We can only use a/an with a countable noun. A countable noun can have a plural form and may describe something that exists in separate, individual forms:

     She has a very beautiful doll.('doll' is a countable noun.)
     She has a few dolls. ('dolls' is the plural form of 'doll')

We cannot use a/an with an uncountable noun. An uncountable noun has no plural form and describes something that does not exist in individual examples that can be 'counted' e.g. music, education, poitics, food, water, weather, work, meat, rice, bread.

     I listened to a music (wrong)
     (It is not possible to talk about different 'musics.')
We can use the with singular and plural countable nouns:
     The teacher arrived and spoke to the students.
We can use the with uncountabe nouns:
     The food was good and I really liked the curry.

More uses of articles

We use the with plural nouns to talk about specific things or people: 

     I like the vegetables in this dish. (these particular vegetables) 

     I like the students. (students of my class)

We do not use an article before a plural noun when we are talking about both things or people in general:

     Young children often don't like vegetables. (young children in general and vegetables in general)

We use the with an uncountable noun to talk about a particular type or example of something :

     I put the books into my bag. (particular books)

We do not use an article with an uncountable noun when we are talking about something in general :

     Books play an important role in our life. (books in general and life in general)

We do not use the with:

• the names of most countries (except the USA and the UK): 

   She comes from India and she lives in the US. Note: 

   For names of countries having various parts, we use 'the'. e.g. the USA, the UK.

• the names of continents or languages:

   She comes from Australia (not from the Australia)

   Do you speak Bangla? (not the Bangla)

• types of music, but we can use the with musical instruments:

   He likes classical music. (not the classical music) 

   He playstheguitar in a band.

• meals, subjects for study, sports and games : 

   What did you have for brekfast? (not the breakfast)

   She is very good at maths (not the maths)

   I dont know how to play chess. (not the chess)

Lesson 2 : Linking Words

What are 'connectors'? You must have read about connectors in your previous classes. Do you remember their uses? Now, let's read the passage below and try to underline the connectors.

Social Networking

Social networking sites are a part of everyday life and they have brought revolutionary changes in communication between people. These sites provide different resources such as email and instant messages. Availability of these resources makes communication easier and faster. When we look at the impacts of social networking sites, we find that they have both positive and negative effects. Because of this fact, it is necessary to analyse both advantages and disadvantages of social networking sites.

Undoubtedly, social networking sites are helpful to young generations. With the help of these sites, people can communicate and express themselves by exchanging messages and comments. Social Networking sites help connect people, friends and relatives. These sites can be accessed from any part of the world. Therefore, a person can communicate with another person from any place. However, we can see clearly that social networking sites are useful only if they are used wisely. So we should use social networking sites positively.

Now, talk about the italic/highlighted words with a partner. In pairs discuss the following questions :

a) What is a connector?
b) What different types of connectors are there in English?
c) What roles do connectors play in a sentence?

Let's try to describe Connectors.

Sentence Connectors are used to express relationships between ideas and to combine sentences.

There are various types of connectors. Let's try to look at them more closely. We can divide them into:

Coordinating Conjunctions :

They connect words, phrases and clauses. They are usually found in the middle of a sentence.

Examples :

He went to school and attended the classes.
He is a meritorious boy but his brother is dull.

List of coordinating conjunctions :

Correlative Conjunctions

They connect equal sentence elements together (like two nouns) and are always composed of two words.

List of correlative conjunctions :

                                                   both...and
                                                   not only...but also either...or
                                                   not...but
                                                   neither...nor
                                                   whether...or
                                                   as...as

Examples :

     She is not only a good student but also a social worker.
     The book is neither interesting nor practical.

Subordinating Conjunctions

They connect a dependent clause and an independent clause and establish a relationship between them. They are used at the beginning of a sentence (with a comma in the middle separating the clauses) or in the middle of a sentence with no comma.

List of subordinating conjunctions

Examples :

If it rains, they will not play. 

Wait here until she comes back.

List of linking adverbs and transition words :

They connect two independent clauses or sentences. They provide transition between ideas.

Exercise 1

Now, read the following passage and discuss with your partner the uses of connectors.

Hasan's Picture

Hasan wasn't a very bright boy. Usually/Generally, he never stood second from the bottom in any test. However/Nevertheless, that morning in the art lesson, he had drawn a beautiful picture of a scarecrow in a field of maze. To his amazement/To his surprise, the drawing was the only one given full marks - ten out of ten - which made him for the first time in his life the best in the class! He had proudly pinned the picture up on the wall behind his desk, where it could be admired by all although/even though, it could not be seen from all corners of the class. Those who saw the picture liked it. As a matter of fact/Besides, it had been chosen to be printed in the School Magazine by the class teacher. Nevertheless/Besides, his talent in painting spread among the students and teachers.

Exercise 2

Let's read the English folktale given below and fill in the blank spaces with suitable connectors.

There were once three tortoises - a father, a mother _ a baby. _ one fine morning during Spring, they decided _ they would like to go for a picnic. They chose the place _ they would like to go; a nice wood at some distance, _ they began to put their things together. They got tins of cheese, vegetables, meat and fruits. In about three months, they were ready. They set out carrying their baskets. _ eighteen months, they sat down for a rest. They knew _ they were already half way to the picnic place. In three years they reached there. They unpacked _ spread out the canned food.

Lesson 3 : Introduction to Possessives

What are the various important days you celebrate at different times of the year?

Look at the greeting cards below and make a list of the days we observe throughout the year.

What have you noticed about the naming of these important days?

The days are named after a certain subject such as father, mother, teacher, etc. There is an apostrophe or an apostrophe and an 's in naming these days. These possessives are formed by adding an apostrophe and an s'. The words father, mother, teacher are nouns. We can transform these nouns into their possessive forms.

Here are some more examples of possessive nouns :

• brother's property
• Rahim's car
• uncle's diary
• a hard day's work

Write the correct form of the possessives for the nouns given in the brackets.
Example :

I met _ sister yesterday. (Moin)

Answer : I met Moin's sister yesterday.

1. This is ---------- book. (Pavel)
2. The ---------- room is upstairs. (children)
3. ---------- sister is twelve years old. (Zafar)
4. ---------- shoes are on the second floor. (men)
5. My ---------- car was not expensive. (father)
6. This is the ---------- bike. (boy)

In pairs discuss these questions :

1. What rules do you follow while writing the possessive forms of the nouns?
2. Where do you put the apostrophe, before or after the 's'?
3. Do you always need an 's' after the apostrophe for forming possessives?
4. How do you make possessives of plural nouns?

Now read the following section to know more about how to make possessives of plural nouns.

Possessives of Plurals

Most plural nouns already end in 's'. To create their possessive, simply add an apostrophe after the 's'. Examples:

• The lions' usual source of water has dried up.
• Man's ambition increases with income.
• Babies' clothes are sold at the other corner.

We need to add an apostrophe followed by an 's' to create the possessive form of the nouns that have irregular plural forms. Examples:

• She plans on opening a women's clothing shop.
• Children's parks are best places for a family picnic.
• The geese's food is eaten by some other birds.

Possessives & Compound Constructions

In pairs discuss the following questions:
How do you form the possessives of compound constructions such as daughter-in-law and friend of mine?
Usually, the apostrophe -s is simply added to the end of the compound structure, e.g. my daughter-in-law's car, a friend of mine's car, etc.
If this sounds clumsy, one may use 'of' to avoid the apostrophe: the car of a friend of mine, etc.

Exercise 1

Make the possessive form of the nouns given in brackets.
Example : My brother's house is in Chittagong. (brother)

1. My ----------- shirt is purple. (friend)
2. The ----------- books are on the desk. (girls)
3. It's ----------- birthday on Monday. (Jahid)
4. Do you have ----------- newspaper? (today)
5. The ----------- bags are in the bedroom. (children)
6. My ----------- office is next to mine. (boss)
7. Your uncle is your ----------- brother. (father)
8. Your aunt is your ----------- sister. (mother)

Lesson 4 : Some more possessives

You have reviewed the possessive nouns in the previous lesson. There are some other kinds of possessives too. What other possessives do you know about?

In pairs talk about what you know about the following types of possessives :

1. possessive adjectives
2. possessive pronouns

Possessive Adjectives

Look at the possessives below. Write them in the correct cell in the table according to their subjects and objects.

Read the following sentences and discuss the functions of possessive adjectives.

That's our house. My car is very old.
Her mother is a doctor.
How old is your sister?
He's broken his arm.
She's washing her hair.
I need to clean my teeth.

As you have seen in sentences above, possessive adjectives - my, your, his, her, its, our, your, their modify the nouns following them in order to show - possession.

We use possessive adjectives to show something belongs to somebody, for relations and friends and for parts of the body.

Possessive adjectives are often confused with possessive pronouns. (However, possessive adjectives are different from possessive pronouns.)

Look at the examples below and discuss in pairs how possessive adjectives are different from possessive pronouns.

     This is your (possessive adjective) book and this is mine (possessive pronoun).
     Its color is beautiful (possessive adjectives).
     Their car is in their garage (possessive adjectives).

Caution : Many students use its and it's confusingly. it's, they're and there are not possessive adjectives - its is a contraction of it is or it has; they're is a contraction of they are; but there is an adverb of place.

Examples :

It's not my book = It is not my book.
My house is big. It's got five bedrooms = It has got five bedrooms.
Nancy and Alam are from Jhalkathi. They're my friends = They are my friends.
Please, put the chair there. (adverb)

Possessive Pronouns

Look at the possessives below. Write them in the correct cell in the table.

When do we use a possessive pronoun? We use a possessive pronoun instead of a noun phrase. Look at the examples below :

We also use possessive pronouns after of. We can say:
Khoka is one of my friends = Khoka is a friend of mine.
But we cannot say Khoka is a friend of me.

The words mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs are possessive pronouns. They show who or what something belongs to.
We use possessive pronouns depending on :

• number: singular (eg: mine) or plural (eg: ours)
• person: 1st person (eg: mine), 2nd person (eg: yours) or 3rd person (eg: his)
• gender: male (his), female (hers)

Possessive pronouns generally do not use an apostrophe to indicate possession. This rule also applies to the possessive form of it, which is its.
Examples :

Do you see that woman over there? Her daughter is very clever. 

He was late for work because his car did not start this morning. 

Is that your house? No, ours is the one next to the shop. 

Virtue is its own reward.

Exercise 1

Replace the personal pronouns by possessive adjectives.

1. Where are (you) _ friends now?
2. Here is a letter from (I) _ friend.
3. She lives in the village now with (she) _ family.
4. (He) _ wife works in Tongi.
5. (He) _ company develops websites.

Exercise 2

Use the correct possessive adjectives.

1. Is this _ (you) house?
2. Mohs in is showing _ (he) cat to _ (he) friends.
3. My sister lost _ (she) way in the city.
4. The lion is chasing _ (it) prey.
5. The dentist asked _ (he) patient to open _ (she) mouth.
6. I gave _ (1) sandwich to Zohir.

Exercise 3

Complete the text with possessives.

I've got a sister. _ name is Hazera. She is fifteen and likes music. I like music too. _ favourite band is Renaissance. I've also got two brothers. _ names are Billal and Tomal. Billal likes football. _ favourite team is Abahani. Tomal doesn't like sports. _ prefers computer games. _ 've a grandma. She's sixty five and name is Jahanara.

Lesson 1 : Introducing Degrees

Look at the picture and read the dialogue :

The words 'short' and 'tall' qualify the two persons. These two qualifying words tell us one of the men is tall and the other is short. On the other hand, the other forms of the words, 'taller' and 'shorter compare their height. The words 'short', 'tall' are called adjectives. Different forms of these adjectives are used to compare two or more things or to compare their qualities. Look at the following picture and sentences to see comparison between more than two things or their qualities.

Now, underline the different forms of the qualifying words used in the bubbles above. Then discuss the following questions with your classmates :

1. What are the different forms of the words 'short' and 'tall'?
2. What forms of the words have been used to compare two persons?
3. What forms of the words have been used to compare three or more persons or things?

Remember that, the base form of the words 'short' and 'tall' is called positive degree or positive degree of adjectives. When they are used to compare between two, the base words become 'shorter' and 'taller' respectively. This form of adjectives is called comparative degree. If we compare between three or more, the base forms change to 'shortest' and 'tallest' respectively and this form of the adjectives is superlative degree.

Formation of Comparatives and Superlatives

i) Adjectives of one syllable take 'er' to form comparatives and 'est'/'st' to form their superlative degrees.

Now, work in pairs and try to make the comparative and superlative forms of the following adjectives :

big, small, fast, slow, wise

Read the following list individually first and then discuss the adjectives and their comparative and superlative forms with your partners :

Now, practise the following conversation with your partner. Change your role while practising. After the first round of practice, use your own names and your own qualities :

Alim : Sarwar, you are short.

Sarwar : Probably I am not shorter than you.

Alim : Sorry Sarwar, I am taller than you.

Sarwar : But you are not the tallest student in the class.

Alim : I agree, Riad is the tallest boy in our class. Who is the shortest student in our class?

Sarwar : I am sure, it is not me. Probably Raihana is the shortest student in our class.

Alim : Sorwar, we should not label one as tall, taller, tallest or, short, shorter, shortest without measuring their heights.

Sarwar : You are quite right, Alim.

ii) If a one syllable adjective ends in a vowel followed by a consonant, the consonant becomes double when any suffix (er, est) is added. If there are two vowels before the last consonant of the adjective, the last consonant will not be doubled (sweet, sweeter, sweetest). Read the adjectives from the following table and notice their comparative and superlative forms :

Lesson 2 : More about degree

Read the following positive, comparative and superlative forms of adjectives. Discuss with your partner how they are different from the previous ones.

Note: If one syllable adjectives end in consonant followed by 'y', 'y' is changed into 'i' and 'er/est' is added to comparative and superlative forms. Remember that, if the last 'y' is preceded by a vowel, the 'y' remains unchanged and 'er', 'est' are used to make comparative and superlative forms respectively. For instance, grey, greyer, greyest.

Now, read the positive, comparative, and superlative forms of adjectives from the list below and discuss with your friends how the positive forms of the adjectives have been changed into comparative and superlative.

Note : Comparatives and superlatives of adjectives made of more than two syllables are made adding 'more' and 'most' before the adjectives respectively.

Now, read the following list of adjectives and look at the comparative and superlative forms of them :

Exercise 1

Now, read the weather forecast and underline the adjectives. Write all the three forms (positive, comparative, and superlative) of all the adjectives you find in the forecast. Then compare your answers with your partners.

Weather is likely to remain dry with cloudy sky over the country. Mild cold wave is sweeping over the regions of Madaripur, Rajshahi, Pabna, Sayedpur, Jessore, Kushtia and Srimangal, and it may continue and spread elsewhere over Rangpur division. Moderate to thick fog may occur over the river basins and light to moderate fog elsewhere over the country during midnight till morning. Night temperature may fall slightly over Rangpur division and it may remain nearly unchanged elsewhere over the country. However, between late December and early January, coldest weather in the last five years is predicted. After some good winters since 2010, we may feel the biting of winter. In that period of time, temperature may be less than 10 degrees Celsius in a few places. Poor and elderly people, and little babies may suffer more for want of warm clothes.

(adapted)

Read the following sentences to experience how to transform sentences containing the degrees of comparison to each other :

A) Positive to comparative

 i) Positive: Faridul is as tall as Riad 

    Comparative: Riad is not taller than Faridul.

 ii) Positive: Khorshed is as handsome as Subrato.

     Comparative: Subrato is not more handsome than Khorshed.

B) Comparative to superlative

 i) Comparative: My father is older than any other men in the village. 

    Superlative: My father is the oldest man in the village.

 ii) Comparative: Milk is more nutritious than any other drink. 

     Superlative: Milk is the most nutritious drink.

C) Superlative to positive

i) Superlative: Atanu is the best boy in class eight.

    Positive : No other boy in class eight is as good as Atanu.

ii) Superlative: Shamsur Rahman is the most famous modern poet of Bangladesh.

     Positive : No other modern poet of Bangladesh is so famous as Shamsur Rahman. 

iii) Superlative: Sraboni is one of the most intelligent girls in the class.

      Positive : Very few girls in the class are as intelligent as Sraboni.

D) Interchange of Degrees

i) Positive: Very few airlines are as good as Apollo Airlines. 

    Comparative: Apollo Airlines is better than most other airlines. Superlative: Apollo Airlines is one of the best airlines.
ii) Positive: No other man in the locality is so active as Mr. Anwar. Comparative: Mr. Anwar is more active than any other man in the locality.

     Superlative : Mr Anwar is the most active man in the locality.

Note : Superlative degrees always take definite article before them. For instance: the best boy; the greatest dramatist; the most handsome man; and the happiest man.

Exercise 2

Fill in the gaps with appropriate forms of adjectives given in the parenthesis :

I met a _ (tall) man on the way to school. Of course, he was not _ (tall) than our head teacher. Our head teacher is the _ (tall) man in the village. He is not only the tallest but also the _ (handsome) and the _ (wise) man in the area.

Exercise 3

Fill in the following conversation with appropriate forms of adjectives. Use different degrees of the adjective-cold and warm :

Shishir : It's so _ today, isn't it?Swapan: Of course. It's _ than yesterday, I am sure.

Shishir : How do you know yesterday was _

Swapan : People were trying to protect themselves with _ clothes.

Shishir : But the weather forecast is that, the next few days will be _ Swapan: Lovely!

Transform the following sentences as directed in the brackets :

i) Mr Bashar is the busiest man in the school. (positive)

ii) No other dramatist in the world is so great as William Shakespeare. (superlative)

iii) Sadia is as beautiful as Papia. (comparative)

iv) No other singer in Bangladesh was so popular as BasirAhamed during the 70s. (superlative)

Mercury is one of the softest metals in the world. (positive)

Lesson 1 : Simple Present Tense

Look at the daily routine of Bina, a class VIII students of Fatikchari Girls' High School. In pairs ask and answer questions about what Bina does at a particular time of a typical day.

Use the following as example:

     A : What does Bina do at eight o'clock in the morning?

     B : She starts for school at eight o'clock.

Now, in the same pair, talk about what you do at times shown in Bina's daily routine. Ask and answer questions about your daily activities. Use the example below:

     A: What do you do at four o'clock in the afternoon?
     B: I go to the field to play football.

Look at the pictures below. What profession do these people have? In pairs ask and answer questions about each picture. Use the example below:

     A: What is his/her profession?
     B: I think, he/she is a cook.
     A: A cook? What does a cook do?
     B: He/she cooks food in a restaurant.

What tense did you use for the activities you have done so far? Notice the verb forms you used when talking about Bina's routine and your daily activities. Also think about how you talked about the profession of the people in the pictures.

While doing those activities, you actually talked about facts in general.

Now read the section below to know more about simple present tense.

Simple Present is also called Present Simple. The Simple Present expresses an action in the present, taking place once, never or several times. It is also used for actions that take place one after another and for actions that are set by a timetable or schedule. The Simple Present also expresses facts in the present.

Look at the diagram below that shows the time we refer to while using Simple Present tense.

Can you explain the diagram? Share your ideas with a partner.

Now, read the section below to know about the uses of simple present tense :

1. Repeated Actions

Use the Simple Present to express the idea that an action is repeated or usual. The action can be a habit, a hobby, a daily event, a scheduled event or something that often happens. It can also be something a person often forgets or usually does not do.

Examples :

• The train leaves every morning at 8 am.
• The train does not leave at 9 am.
• When does the train usually leave?

2. Facts or Generalizations

In Simple Present a speaker can make statement about something that was true before, is true now, and will be true in the future.

Examples :

• Windows are made of glass.
• Windows are not made of wood.

3. Scheduled Events in the Near Future

Speakers occasionally use Simple Present to talk about scheduled events in the near future. This is most commonly done when talking about the timetable of transportation, but it can be used with other scheduled events too.

Examples :

• The train leaves tonight at 6 am.
• The bus does not arrive at 11 am, it arrives at 1 pm.
• When do we board the plane?
• The party starts at 8 o'clock.

Exercise 1

The following text describes the life of a fisherman. Rewrite the verbs in the bracket to make a paragraph in the simple present tense.

A fisherman (to be) an individual whose work is to catch fish in the ponds, canals and rivers and sell then in the local markets. His main profession (to be) to earn his living by catching and selling fish. He even (go) to the sea in groups to catch fish. He (have) to lead a miserable life as his daily income (to be) very meagre. Some fishermen (live) on the seashore and (catch) fish in the sea, while others (move) near the rivers during the rainy season. Again some (return) to village for repairing fishing nets and boats.

A fisherman (do) not know many things happening around him. He (keep) himself busy with fishing lines. His joy (know) no bounds when he (catch) a lot of fish.

Exercise 2

Read the passage and answer the questions below the passage.

Mr. Amin works at a bank. He is the manager. He starts work every day at 8:00. He finishes work every day at 6:00. He lives very close to the bank. He walks to work every day. His brother and sister also work at the bank. But, they do not live close to the bank. They drive cars to work. They start work at 9:00. In the bank, Mr. Amin is the boss. He helps all the workers and tells them what to do. He likes his job. He is also very good at his job. Many customers like Mr. Amin and they say hello to him when they come to the bank. He likes to talk to the customers and make them feel happy. Mr. Amin really likes his job.

Now, answer this questions :

1. What time does Mr. Amin start work?
2. Does Mr. Amin drive a car to work?
3. Does Mr. Amin talk to customers?
4. How does Mr. Amin feel about his job?

Lesson 2 : Present Continuous Tense

Read the live radio commentary of a big sport event and notice the underlined parts.

Hello listeners, welcome to the running commentary of the annual sport meet of Bangladesh Olympic Association. I am speaking from the Bangabandhu National Stadium Dhaka. It's just eight o'clock in the morning and we are expecting the grand opening of the annual event in next few minutes. As I am standing in front of the main gate, I can see the crowd enjoying this sunny morning in the Eastern gallery. Now, the President of Bangladesh Olympic Association is entering the ground along with the officials. The athletes are gathering in the field and they are warming up. Just now I can see a great athlete in front of me, two times gold medalist, Jamal Haider. He is waving his hands to the crowd and as you can hear, the spectators are happy to see their heroes and they are cheering so loud!

Discuss the question in pairs :

How is the commentator describing the actions that are taking place while he is talking i.e. what verb from is she/he wing here?

Now look at the people in the pictures below. In pairs ask and answer questions about what each of them are doing at this moment. Follow the examples below :

A: What is s/he doing?
B: S/he is...... ing.

What tense do we use to talk about some actions that is taking place at the time of talking? The tense we use for this is called Present Continuous tense. This tense is also known as Present Progressive tense.

Now, read the section below to know more about Present Continuous (progressive) tense.

The Present Progressive is a form of the verb that shows the action is going on in the present.

The Present Progressive is used for actions going on at the moment of speaking and for actions taking place only for a short period of time.

When do we use present continuous/progressive tense? Read the following sentences in present continuous tense. Can you find out the different uses of present continuous/progressive tense?

1. The boys are swimming in the pond.
2. He is studying medicine.
3. He is working very hard nowadays.
4. She is preparing a delicious curry tonight.
5. He is taking a basic computer course next month.
6. She is always making complains.

Now read the section below to know more about when or where to use this tense.

We use Present Continuous/Progressive tense to talk about :

• Actions that are happening now (e.g. She is playing tennis.)
• Actions which are currently in progress may not be exactly at this moment/second e.g. She is studying astrology these days.)
• Planned future actions (e.g. We are starting a new course next month.)

Forming sentences in present continuous tense

You have so far looked at many examples of sentences in present continuous tense. Have you noticed how these sentences are formed? Discuss the following questions in pairs:

1. Can you form a sentence in the Present Continuous tense without an auxiliary verb?
2. What auxiliary verbs are used with different subjects to form these sentences?
3. What form does the main verb take in present continuous tense?

Now, read the following part to check your understanding of how sentences are formed in present continuous tense.

Now, look at this table to form questions in present continuous tense. Read the examples in the last column.

Exercise

Look at the picture. In pairs discuss the following questions about the people in the picture.

1. Who are they?
2. Where are they sitting now?
3. What are they doing?

The text below describes the two people in this picture. Write the verbs in the bracket in their correct forms and necessary auxiliary verbs.

Right now, it is Monday morning. Mamun and Tina are at home. They (sit) _ at a table. They (eat) _ breakfast. At this moment, Tina (drink) _ coffee. She (eat) _ cake. She (sit) _ across the table from Mamun. He is Tina's husband. He (sit) _ at the table with Tina. He also (drink) _ coffee. Mamoon (listen to) _ Tina. After breakfast, Mamun and Tina (leave) _ for _ work. They work in the city. They (ride) _ the bus to work.

Lesson 3 : Present Perfect Tense

Rajib and his friends have gathered in the school canteen to discuss their preparations for a cultural show. Read the conversation between Rajib and his friends and notice the underlined parts.

Rajib : Well, let's talk about the invitation card. When can we print them?

Mira : I have just talked to a press and the manager said he'd print them in two days.

Rajib : That's great! Now how about donations? Have we got enough money?

Momen : I have collected five hundred taka from bookshop.

Jalil : Our club chairman has already given two thousand.

Bonna : My sister has requested her boss to donate some money. He has agreed to help us.

Rajib : Okay, let's hope he will give us a good amount of money. Has anyone talked with the decorators?

Momen : I have already talked to them. They will do the stage, lighting and the sound.

Rajib : Fantastic! Seems that all of you have done excellent jobs. Thank you.

As you read the underlined parts of the conversation, what have you noticed? What time do these expressions refer to?

Notice that, all the underlined parts refer to actions that were completed before the present time. Also notice that the friends are talking about actions that have finished recently. These underlined parts are examples of expressions in the Present Perfect tense.

When do we use Present Perfect tense? Read the following sentences in present perfect tense. Can you guess the different uses of Present Perfect tense?

1. He has answered the questions.
2. I have seen the film three times already.
3. He has just joined his new post.
4. I have never seen a crocodile before.
5. She has bought some food for us.
6. They have lived here for three years.

Now, read the section below to know more about when or where to use this tense.

Present Perfect tense is used for:

• Actions that happened at an unspecific time before the present (e.g. They have invited all of us.)
• Actions that have ended recently (e.g. She has broken her leg.)
• States that started in the past and are still continuing (e.g. I have always liked him.)

You have so far looked at many examples of sentences in present perfect tense.

Have you noticed how these sentences are formed? Discuss the following questions in pairs.

1. Can you form a sentence in the Present Perfect tense without an auxiliary verb?
2. What auxiliary verbs are used to form Present Perfect sentences?
3. What form does the main verb take in Present Perfect tense?

Now, read the following to check your understanding of how sentences are formed in the Present Perfect tense. They are formed by using past participle (pp) of the main verb after have/has.

Now, look at this table to form questions in the Present Perfect tense. Read the example in the last column.

Exercise 1

Read the following story and rewrite the verbs in the brackets in correct forms with appropriate auxiliary verbs.

Recently, it (rain) ……………. in Munira's town. So far, she (see) ……………. times. Munira always (love) ……………. the sound of the raindrops on her tin-shed house. She has (be) …………… out in the rain two times before.

Munira's daughter, Mishu never (play) ……………. in the rain. This is her first experience of playing in the rain. Munira is worried about her daughter. She might catch a cold.

Munira just (buy) ……………. a new umbrella.a new umbrella. She puts on her rain coat and goes out with the umbrella.

Exercise 2

Look at the list of some everyday activities in the box. In pairs ask and answer questions about what you have done today. Follow the example below :

A : Have you watched television today?

B: Yes, I have. I have watched a football match.

The Present Perfect continuous tense indicates that something began in the past and has continued up to now or has current relevance, or is likely to continue in future.

Lesson 4 : Simple Past Tense

Read the story of Zahid, a student of class eight, who traveled to St. Martin's island last year. Read about his journey and discuss in pairs the following questions.

1. What problems did Zahid face during the journey?
2. How did he go to St. Martin's?
3. What things did he do at Cox's Bazar and St. Martin's island?

A Memorable Trip

I had a memorable trip to Cox's Bazar and St. Martin's Island when I was a student of class seven. I remember all the things happened to me during the trip. My uncle and aunt lived in Chittagong at that time and they invited us to visit them. My cousin Saleha was of the same age as I was. So I felt delighted when my mother told me about the visit. We live in Rajshahi and Chittagong is far away. First we planed to go to Dhaka by bus and then to Chittagong by train. One fine morning we got on a bus at Rajshahi at 7 o'clock in the morning. Normally it takes about six hours to reach Dhaka from Rajshahi. Unfortunately, there was a huge traffic jam from on the way and the journey took almost eight hours to reach Dhaka. So we had to stay in a hotel in Dhaka for the night and the next morning we took the train to Chittagong at 8 in the morning from Kamlapur railway station. We were unlucky again because the train also arrived late at Chittagong. But we felt happy because my uncle and aunt received us at the station.

Next morning we started for Cox's, Bazar. We arrived there at about two and spent the rest of the day by the sea side. I had not seen the sea earlier so it was an exciting experience for me. We stayed at a hotel there. Early next morning we went to the beach again and saw the beautiful sunrise. We walked along the beach, bathed in sea water, ate sea food and enjoyed ourselves.

Read the text again and look at the words that express actions in the past. You will find that these actions words are all verbs. You will also find the be verbs (was and were) used in the sentences for describing a situation in the past.

The sentences that describe a past situation or action in the above text are in Simple Past tense.

Can you say when or where we use Simple Past tense? The Simple Past expresses an action in the past taking place once, never, several times.

Read the text below on Gautam Buddha and think about the uses of Simple Past tense.

Buddha was born in the year 563 B.C. at a place called Lumbini. His father Suddhodana was a Sakya king and his mother Maya also came from a princely family. Seven days after his birth his mother died, leaving him to the care of her sister and his step mother Mahajapati.

The young Buddha was brought up in Kapilavastha, the capital of Sakya kingdom. When he was born, several miracles occurred. His father and some prominent members of his court were aware that a divine child was born amidst them. His parents gave him the name Siddhartha. They expected him to grow and become a successful and king.

Read the section below to know about the uses of Simple Past tense. Simple Past tense is used to express -

  • action in the past taking place once, never or several times
     Example : He visited his parents every weekend.

  • actions in the past taking place one after another
     Example : He came in, took off his coat and sat down.

  • action in the past taking place in the middle of another action
     Example : When I was having breakfast, the phone suddenly rang.

Forming sentences in Simple Past tense

Discuss the questions in pairs:

1. How do you form sentences in simple past tense?
2. Do all simple past tense sentences have auxiliary verbs?
3. What form does the main verb take in simple past tense?
4. How do you form a question about the past?

Use the table to make sentences about past events.

Study the rules below to understand how sentences are formed in simple past.

We use was/were as 'be' verbs to talk about the past. Now, look at the following table :

Exercise 1

In pairs talk about a journey you made. One partner will ask the following questions and the other will answer them in simple past tense.

1. Where did you go?
2. What transport did you take?
3. When did you start?
4. How long was the journey?
5. Did you take any luggage with you?
6. Did you face any troubles on the way?
7. When did you reach your destination?

Exercise 2

Put the verbs into the correct tense (Simple Past or Present Perfect). Note that we do not use the present perfect when past time is mentioned.

A: I (see / not) ---------- you for a long time. Where ---------- (you /be)?

B : (come/just) ---------- back from Cox's Bazar.

A : Oh really? What (you / do) ---------- there?

B : I (stay) ---------- at a hotel and (enjoy) ------ the beauty of the sea.

Lesson 5 : Past Continuous Tense

Look at the pictures. In pairs discuss what time are the speakers referring to? Which tense has been used in these sentences?

Practise this conversation in pairs.

A : What is wrong with your hand?

B : I broke my hand yesterday.

A : How did it happen?

B : Well, I fell down

A : Oh, really! What were you doing at that time?

B : I was climbing up a tree.

A : So you were climbing a tree and you fell down and broke your hand. That's so sad!

Now look at the illustration below. Which tense does it talk about? Can you give some more examples of sentences like these?

Read what the students were doing at 7'o clock in the morning. What tense are they using in their reply? They are talking about what was happening in the past.

Read the text below. Underline the sentences in Simple Past tense and Past Continuous tense.

Yesterday, it was raining all day. Onu was playing inside the house. She wanted to be outside. She wasn't playing outside because it was raining. She was feeling tired of staying inside the house. Onu was trying to keep busy inside the house. She was reading her book until the electricity went out. Then, she decided to practise her sewing. She was practising sewing until lunchtime. After lunch, she sat by the window and watched the rain.

While Onu was watching the rain, the phone rang. Her mother was calling to say she was coming home. She played the games with her mother when she came home.

Discuss the questions in pairs.
     a) Why was Onu feeling tired?
     b) What were Onu doing to get herself busy?
     c) What did Onu do with her mother?
     d) How are the sentences formed in the past continuous?

Read about the uses of Past Simple and Past Continuous tense.

When we talk about two actions in the past taking place one after another, we use simple past tense for both the actions.

     Example : She came home and switched on the computer and checked her mails.

But when we talk about two events in the past which were taking place at the same time, we use Past Continuous for describing both the actions.

Example: Sumon was playing on the computer while his brother was watching.

Non-progressive verbs

The following verbs are usually only used in Simple Past (not in the progressive form).

  • state : be, cost, fit, mean, suit
     Example : We were on holiday.

  • possession: belong, have
     Example : Salam had a pet.

  • senses : feel, hear, see, smell, taste, touch
     Example : He felt the cold.

  • feelings : hate, hope, like, love, prefer, regret, want, wish
     Example: Joynal loved cakes.

  • perceptions : believe, know, think, understand
     Example : I did not understand him.

  • introductory clauses for direct speech: answer, ask, reply, say
     Example : "I am watching TV," he said.

Exercise

Put the verbs into the correct tense (Simple Past or Past Progressive).

1. The receptionist (welcome) _ the guests and (ask) _ them to fill in the form.
2. The car (break) _ down and we (have) _ to walk home.
3. My father (come) _ in, (look) _ around and (tell) _ me to tidy up my room. 
4. While the parents (have) _ breakfast, their children (run) _ about.
5. Momota (turn) _ off the lights and (go) _to bed.

Lesson 6 : Simple Future Tense

Mr. Kabir is going to Singapore tomorrow. Here is his planning for the journey. Work in pairs, ask and answer the following questions.

The flight will leave Dhaka Sahjalal International Airport at 11.00 pm and I must report for checking-in at least two hours before the departure time. I shall start for the airport by 7-00 pm so that I can reach the airport in time. There will be heavy traffic on the Airport Road at this time. If I start by 7.00 pm, I'll have enough time in hand to reach the airport. I am going to take only a small suitcase and a laptop with me. So, there won't be any hassle with my baggage. I have not got any foreign currency but I am going to buy some dollars from the airport. This will be a short flight and I hope to arrive at the Chengi Airport, Singapore in 3 hours.

Questions

     a) What time will the flight leave Shahjalal International Airport?
     b) What things is Mr. Kabir taking with him?
     c) What tense is used by Mr. Kabir to talk about the travel?

In the passage above Mr. Kabir talks about the events/actions that will happen in future. So he uses Simple Future tense to talk about the things that will take place in future.

Read the following sentences. Can you see a common structure in them? In pairs, try to identity the structure.

• The flight will leave Dhaka Sahjalal International Airport at 1.00 pm.
• I shall start for the airport by 7-00 pm.
• There will be heavy traffic on the Airport Road.
• This will be a short flight.
• There won't be any hassle with my baggage.

Now, read the following section to check your understanding of Simple Future tense.

To make sentences in the Simple Future tense, we put 'will' or '...Il' before the base form of the verb.

For the negative we put 'will not' or 'won't' in front of the verb. With subjects like 'I' or 'we', we can also say 'shall'/shan't.

To make questions in the future, we put 'will' or 'shall' in front of the subject.

With 'I' and 'We' you can use shall. This usually means a suggestion or that something is not certain.

Examples :

Shall we go to the cinema?

What shall I wear for the party?

What will you be in future? Tell your friends in your class. (hints: teacher, doctor, pilot, nurse, etc.)

Read the sentences below and notice how we talk about future plans.

am going to buy some dollars from the airport.
I am going to take only a small suitcase and a laptop with me
She is going to sit for the exam next year.

Now, read the text below and notice the future expressions with going to + verb.

On Saturday, Noboni will be three years old. Her parents are going to have a birthday party. The party is going to begin at noon on Saturday. Many people will be invited at the party. Noboni will have so much fun!

Noboni's mother is going to cook polaow and chicken curry. Her father is going to buy a special cake. It will be a chocolate cake. Noboni will love her cake! Her grandmother is going to bring some ice cream and her aunt is going to buy her a nice dress.

All of Noboni's relatives will bring beautiful presents. Noboni is going to have a nice birthday this year!

So, we can see that there are two ways to talk about simple future.

Now look at the structures for talking about future actions with going to + verb.

Exercise 1

Kona met a fortune teller once. Though she does not believe in fortune telling, she wanted to have some fun and so, asked the fortune teller to tell about her future. The fortune teller was also very funny. Here is what the fortune teller told her. Complete the sentences with appropriate auxiliary verbs.

1. You (earn) _ a lot of money.
2. You (travel) _ around the world.
3. You (meet) _ lots of interesting people.
4. Everybody (admire) _ you.
5. You (not / have) _ any problems.
6. Many people (serve) _ you.
7. They (anticipate) _ your wishes.
8. There (not / be) _ anything left to wish for.
9. Everything (be) _ perfect.
10. But all these things (happen / only) _ if you marry me.

Exercise 2

Ms. Selina Rahman is talking about her holiday. Complete the sentences. Put the verbs in brackets into the Simple Future tense.

1. I ______________ my holidays with my parents this year. (spend)
2. We ______________ at my parents' house in Khulna. (stay)
3. My father ______________ at the station to receive me. (be)
4. I ______________ some warm clothes. (need)
5. I ______________ some presents for my parents. (take)
6. It ______________ a great time with my parents. (be)

Exercise 3

Talk about your future plans in pairs. Say at least three things that you are going to do next week. Use the 'going to' form.

Lesson 1 : An Introduction

Read the text below and notice the underlined words.

Mr. Kamal is a reporter of a newly published English newspaper. His job is to collect news about various cultural events. Collecting news is sometimes very challenging that involves visiting spots and talking to people. Reporting also requires the skill of writing in a convincing style to give a realistic picture of the event covered.

While writing the report Mr. Kamal has to pay attention to three questions- what, when and how. Giving a complete but brief account of an event requires constant practise. It is also important to present the most important information in the introductory paragraph. This enables the reader to have the most important message at first while going through a piece of report.

Discuss the following questions in pairs.

• What functions do the underlined words play?
• Which of the underlined words function as adjectives?
• Which of the underlined words function as nouns?
• Which of the underlined words function as verbs?

Now, read the following explanations to check your understanding.

All the underlined words in the above text are formed from verbs. But they are not used alone as action words in the above sentences. Instead, they function as either nouns, adjectives, or adverbs.

There are some underlined words which end in ing and function as noun. They are known as gerund. For example :

• Collecting news is very challenging.
• Reporting also requires the skill of writing.

There are some other underlined words that end in ing (present participle) or -ed, -d, -t, en, -n (past participle). These words may function as adjectives, describing or modifying nouns and are known as participles. For example:

• Mr. Kamal is a reporter of a newly published English newspaper.
• That involves visiting spots.

Again you will find examples of another type of underlined words having base forms of verbs with to. Usually they function as nouns, although they can also function as verbs. These verbs are called infinitives. For example :

• It is also important to present the most important information.
• This enables the reader to have the most important message. 

Read the above text again, and make a list of examples of the gerunds, participles and infinitives in it.

Exercise

In each of the following sentences, identify the underlined word or words as a gerund, participle, or infinitive.

1. Zinia said the best place to go on Friday is the zoo.
2. The plan accepted by the committee involves a development goal.
3. Getting up early in the morning is sometimes a challenge.
4. One of my favourite hobbies is swimming.
5. Passing this test with good grades will make me happy.
6. Economics is an interesting field of study.
7. They have closed the library to repair all the broken shelves.
8. I am working hard to achieve good grades in English.

Lesson 2 : Participle

Bobby and his mother are at his sister's wedding. His mother seems worried and keeps asking him questions. Read the dialogue between Bobby and his mother and notice the underlined words:

Bobby : Isn't it wonderful, mother? Sima is getting married today.

Mother : Yes, it is.

Bobby : Aren't you excited?

Mother : Yes, this is a very exciting event indeed. But I'm also a bit worried. What if something goes wrong?

Bobby : Come on, mother! Why does such worrying thoughts come to your mind?

Mother : I don't know. Well, where is your father?

Bobby : He's standing at the gate to welcome the invited guests.

Mother : And where is your uncle?

Bobby : I don't know actually. He is supposed to receive the bridegroom.

Mother : But where is he now? It so annoying!

Bobby : Don't worry mom. He'll be here soon. Relax, why do you look so confused?

Mother : Look, I want to be sure that everything is okay. Have you seen your sister?

Bobby : She is just here from the parlour. She looks stunning in that bridal dress.

Mother : She is lonely there and might feel bored! Why don't you go and take some photos of her. That will be quite interesting?

Bobby : Mother, you know, I have asked a wedding photographer to take her pictures. He can take amazing photos.

Mother : That's good. Let's see how fascinating they look.

Discuss the following questions :

1. What kind of words are the underlined words made from?
2. What function does each underlined word play in the sentence (verb/adjectives)?
3. What are these words known as?

Notes:In the above dialogue,the underlined words are examples of participle.Do you remember what a participle is, how it is formed and when you use it? If you have noticed the underlined words in the above dialogue, you will see that all these words are formed from a verb and these words are used as adjectives. These are called participles.

The above dialogue contains examples of two types of participles- the present participle (ending ing) and the past participle (usually ending -ed, -d, -t, -en, or -n).

In pairs talk about the examples of past and present participles functioning as adjectives. Remember, adjectives are words that describe nouns.

Look at the following examples of present and past participles used as adjectives.

Now, let's look at some example sentences with the present and past participles.

Practise using present/past participles in the following sentences. Choose the right participle from the bracket to complete each sentence below.

1. Kamal was _ (annoying/annoyed) by the news.
2. We found that the instructions were _ (confusing/confused).
3. It's an _ (amusing/amused) story. You should read this.
4. I'm not really _ (interesting/interested) in basketball.
5. Do you feel _ (worrying/worried) about exams?
6. Young children are often _ (scaring/scared) of ghosts.
7. The stranger gave a _ (surprising/surprised) news to all of us.
8. The defeat in the football match was The defeat in the football match was so _ (shocking/shocked) that we could not say a word for hours.

Gerund as the subject of the sentence

Examples :

     Eating uncooked food is not good.
     Hunting tigers is dangerous.
     Flying makes me nervous.
     Brushing your teeth is important.

Gerund after prepositions

The gerund must be used when a verb comes after a preposition. This is also true for certain expressions ending in a preposition.

Examples :

     Can you sneeze without opening your mouth?
     She is good at painting.
     We arrived in Khulna after driving all night.

Gerund after phrasal verbs

Phrasal verbs are composed of a verb + preposition or adverb.

Examples :

When will you give up smoking? 

She always puts off going to the dentist.

He kept on asking for money.

I look forward to hearing from you soon.

I am used to waiting for buses.

Gerund after some expressions

The gerund is necessary after the expressions like can't help, can't stand, to be worth, and it's no use.

Examples :

     I can't stand being stuck in traffic jams.
     It's no good wasting your time.

Remember: In English, the present participle has the same form as the gerund, and the difference is in how they are used.

Examples:

    I can't stand being stuck in traffic jams.
    It's no good wasting your time.

Remember: In English, the present participle has the same form as the gerund, and the difference is in how they are used.

Exercise

Use gerunds in the following sentences. The first one is done for you.

      1. Always check the oil before you start the car.
      Always check the oil before starting the car.
      2. To see is to believe.
      3. To give is better than to receive.
      4. To talk like this is foolish.
      5. She loves to sing songs.
      6. I am tired to wait.
      7. I like to read poetry.
      8. To walk is a good exercise.
      9. He is afraid to hurt your feelings.
      10. Nobody really loves to work.

Lesson 4 : Infinitive

Look at the cartoon below and read the two sentences. What two different forms are used after the verb like?

We can see two forms used here : 

     Main verb + verb + ing (I like learning) and,
     Main verb + to + verb in the base form (I like to learn)

Here in these sentences, the word learning is a gerund and to learn is an infinitive. Here are some infinitives :

The infinitive has two forms :        the to-infinitive = to + base

                                                             zero infinitive/bare infinitive = base

The present infinitive is the base form of verb you will find in a dictionary.

The negative infinitive is formed by putting not in front of any form of the infinitive.

Examples :

I decided not to go to London. 

He asked me not to be late. 

I'd like you not to sing so loudly.

I'd rather not eat meat.

The to-infinitive is used in sentences to express purpose, opinion or intention of an action.

Examples :

She came to borrow my dictionary. 

They went to find firewood. 

I am calling to ask you about father. 

Your sister has gone to finish her homework.

The to-infinitive as the subject of the sentence

This is a formal usage and is far more common in written English than spoken

Examples :

     To err is human. To be or not to be, that is the question.

The to-infinitive is used frequently with the adverbs too and enough.

Examples :

     I had too many books to carry.

     This soup is too hot to eat. 

     She was too tired to work.

     I've had enough food to eat.

Functions of the zero infinitive

Examples :

     She can't speak to you.
     He should give her some money.
     Would you like a cup of coffee?

The zero infinitive after the verbs 'make' and 'let'

Examples :

Her parents let her stay out late. 

Let's go to the cinema tonight. 

The rains made us stay at home.

Exercise

Join the following sentences by using infinitives. One is done for you.

     1. The boy was happy. He received the prize.
     The boy was happy to receive the prize.
     2. He did not have even a coin with him. He could not buy a loaf of bread.
     3. He went to the market. He wanted to buy some vegetables.
     4. He wants to be rich. He works hard for that reason.
     5. Everyone should do one's duty.
     6. He collects old stamps. It is his hobby.

Lesson 1 : An Introduction

Read the following letter written by a student to a friend.

Now, discuss these questions in pair.

1. How many sentences are there in the letter?
2. What are some of the essential features of a sentence?
3. What does each sentence begin with and what does it have at the end?
4. What are the two parts in a sentence?

Now read the following and check your answers to the questions.

A sentence is a set of oral or written words in proper order that expresses a complete thought.These words are commonly named as Parts of Speech.These Parts of Speech are placed according to the work they do in a sentence. The first word of a sentence is capitalised and the sentence ends with a full stop (.), question mark (?) or exclamation mark (!).

A sentence contains a subject and a predicate. Sometimes, the subject is not mentioned explicitly in some sentences. It is only 'understood.' Examples of such sentences can be found in the letter above: (You) Give me details about your vacation plan. Here the subject you is not mentioned by the letter writer but we understand that Dalia was asking her friend Mahjabin to give her the details of her vacation plan.

Rearrange these words to make meaningful sentences.

1. ship violently the storm rocked the
2. painting artist with great patience the his worked at
3. gift free a he offered the hotel by the was.
4. I read paper in the road was blocked the that.
5. began cricketers the ground at their familiar practising.
6. wore a hat he of coconut made fibre his on head.
7. parts many coffee popular in world the is very of.
8. cave could explore not they torch the without a.
9. the storm shed damaged the was during.
10. the poor girl Jamil and talked sat next to her.

Can you say what a subject and a predicate are in a sentence? Identify subjects and predicates in the following sentences.

1. The results of the test are not known yet.
2. There have been many incidents of robbery in the past.
3. Why did he take the new bike back to the dealer?
4. My name was written on the document in three places.
5. She will be going to the dentist later this afternoon.
6. Will Jewel be taking his cricket bat on this trip?

Lesson 2 : Affirmative and Negative sentences

Read the sentences in column A and B of the following table. In pairs, discuss the differences between the sentences given in column A and B.

What differences have you identified between the two types of sentences? You might have already found that we call these two types of sentences as Affirmative Sentences and Negative Sentences.

In pairs, discuss what you know about the formation and use of Affirmative Sentences and Negative Sentences.

Affirmative Sentences

One of the commonly used structures in English is subject-verb-object. 

     e.g. The rabbit eats carrots.

     The rabbit is the subject, eats is the main verb, and carrots is the object.

Negative Sentences

      The negative form of this sentence is a little different.
      The rabbit does not eat carrots.

Choose the sentence from column B to match the sentences having the same meaning in column A.

Lesson 3 : Interrogative Sentences

Read the short text on a popular sport star. Make a list of what you have already known about her.

Stephanie Rice is renowned as one of Australia's golden girls. She is Olympic Gold Medalist and world record-breaking swimmer. Stephanie knew she wanted to be an Olympic swimmer from the young age of four. The talented swimmer first caught Australia's attention in 2006. Then at 17 years of age, she won gold at the Melbourne Commonwealth Games. She then went on to win more medals at international levels. She showed her best at the 2008 Beijing Olympic swimming when she won three Gold Medals and set new world records.

[adapted]

Imagine that you have a chance to meet Stephanie Rice who offers advice to young athletes. You will be allowed to ask her questions only. Now write the five questions that you would like to ask her.

Compare your questions with a partner. Make a final list of 5 questions to ask Stefanie Rice.

You might have already discussed that the sentences we use for asking questions are known as Interrogative Sentence.

Read the sections below to check your understanding of the form and use of Interrogative Sentences.

Interrogative sentences are used to ask questions: They are also easy to spot because they end in a question mark.

'yes' 'no' interrogative: 

Example : Is it raining?

Notice that the interrogative above is a simple 'yes' 'no' question. The response may be given by 'yes' or 'no'.

Alternative interrogatives offer two or more alternative responses :

Example :

Should I telephone you or send an email? Do you want tea or coffee?

Yes/no interrogatives and alternative interrogatives are introduced by an auxiliary verb.
WH- interrogatives are introduced by a wh- word, and the response is open-ended.

Examples :
What happened?
Where do you work?
Where do you live?

Questions are sometimes tagged at the end of a statement.

Examples:
Sumon plays the piano, doesn't he?
We've forgotten the milk, haven't we?
It's hot today, isn't it?

These are known as tag questions. They consist of a main or auxiliary verb followed by a pronoun or introductory there.

Transformation of assertive sentences to interrogative

Read the following rules to remember while transforming assertive sentences to interrogative.

• You cannot change the meaning of sentences.
• If the assertive sentence is in affirmative or positive, you have to use negative expression in interrogative and if it is in negative, you will use the affirmative or positive expression in interrogative.
• An interrogative sentence may start with either a wh-word or an auxiliary verb.

Here are some examples with explanations.

Examples :
Assertive: He is a famous player of this country. Interrogative: Is he not a famous player of this country? (To show positive sense)
Assertive: We do not play in the sun.
Interrogative: Do we play in the sun? (To show negative sense)
 

Explanation : Here, you only have to place the auxiliary verb at first and then the subject. And, the sentence which is positive, is changed into negative and which is in negative, is changed into positive.

Examples :
Assertive: My brother has never visited India. Interrogative: 

Has my brother ever visited India?

Explanation : Here, only the word 'never' is changed into 'ever' and the rest are in the same structure.

Examples :

Assertive: He has nothing to do in this situation. Interrogative :

Has he anything to do in this situation?

Explanation : Here, only the word 'nothing' is changed into 'anything' and the rest are in the same structure.

Examples :

Assertive : Everybody wants to be happy in life. 

Interrogative : Who does not want to be happy in life?

Assertive : All were present in the last meeting.

Interrogative : Who were not present in the last meeting?

Explanation :
Here, you have to use a wh-words-'who' in the beginning and the rest parts are in same structure. And 'Everybody/everyone/all' are positive in sense, so the interrogative structure should be negative.

Examples:

Assertive : Nobody believes a liar in this world. 

Interrogative : Who believe a liar?

Assertive : None helped him yesterday. 

Interrogative : Who helped him yesterday?

Explanation : Here, you have to use a wh-word-'who' in the beginning and the rest are in same structure. And 'Nobody/none/no one' are negative in sense so the interrogative structure should be affirmative.

Exercise

Change the following assertive sentences into interrogative.

1. It was a great sight.
2. No one can tolerate this.
3. Nobody salutes the setting sun.
4. Gulliver could hear his watch ticking in his pocket.
5. It is useless to cry over spilt milk.
6. The beauty of nature is beyond description.
7. Everybody has heard of Darwin.
8. He has his dinner at seven every evening.
9. I told him to practise regularly.
10. Virtue has its own reward.

Lesson 4 : Imperative Sentence

Look at the following sentences. What do they have in common? 

What do all of the following sentences have in common?

1. Enjoy yourselves.
2. Give me some time to decide.
3. Feel free to write when you need.
4. Give me your phone number
5. Don't shut the door
6. Stop!

Imperative sentences are used for requests, suggestions, advice, or commands. Generally the subjects are missing here and the sentences begin with verbs. Imperative sentences are widely used in social communication especially in conversation. The above sentences are positive imperatives. However, in the negative imperative sentences, we commonly use contracted forms. Now look at the examples below :

1. Don't eat my banana.
2. Don't wait for my answer.
3. Don't neglect your study.
4. Don't shout.

Work in pairs. Make a list of some of the instructions your teachers give you in the classroom. Example :

1. Read the passage.
2. Look at the picture.

The following text shows the procedure of cooking chicken biryani. Some words are missing here. Now work in pairs to complete the text; you may select words from the given box below:

Cut and _ the chicken. _ water from the chicken. _ red chili powder, garammasala powder, cumin powder, coriander powder, ginger paste, garlic paste, jaifal, jaiotri, yogurt and one tablespoon salt to the chicken and mix all of them very well. Leave it to _ for one hour. Wash the rice. _ five cups of water in a deep pan and bring the water boil. When the water boils, add rice, two pieces of cardamom, two pieces of cinnamon sticks, two pieces of bay leaves and one table spoon of salt. _  the rice until nearly done. Drain and keep it aside. _ oil in a pan. Add one chopped onion and fry until deep golden brown. _ the fried onion from the pan and keep aside. Add marinated chicken. Cook it in medium heat around 25-30 minutes or until chicken becomes tender. Take a heavy bottom pan and  alternate layers of chicken and rice. Carefully _ it with rice layer and spread ghee on top of the rice.  the pan with lid. If the lid is not tight, seal the edge with flour dough. Cook it in low flame around 20-25 minutes. _ the burner and leave it for another 20 minutes. Spread the fried onion over the biryani.

Lesson 5 : Exclamatory Sentence

Exclamatory sentences express strong emotions. It doesn't really matter what the emotion is; an exclamatory sentence is the type of sentence needed to express it. Exclamatory sentences always end in an exclamation mark. So it's easy to spot them.

Examples :

     What a stupid person he is! 

     How wonderful you look!

It is very important to know how to make exclamations because they are very common both in speaking and writing.

Look at the sentence below -

That is a piece of awful news. This is an assertive sentence expressing strong feeling. We can express the feeling more strongly using an exclamatory sentence. Look at the following sentence.

What an awful news!

Or

How awful the news is!
Look at another example:

Assertive: The baby has a very lovely smile.
Exclamatory: What a lovely smile the baby has!

Or
What a lovely smile the baby has!

Look at some more examples of exclamatory sentences below :

• The river is rising!
• I don't know what I'll do if I don't pass this test!
• Suddenly, a snake appeared in my path!
• This is the best day of my life!

Exercise

Change the following into exclamatory sentences:

     1. It is very cold outside.
     2. She sings very well.
     3. He looks annoyed.
     4. He is a very cruel man.
     5. The weather is very foul today.
     6. That is very interesting.
     7. She is very tall.
     8. It is very nice afternoon.

Lesson 6 : Introductory there

Amin has his own room in a small house. Look at the picture of Amin's room and read the description below. As you read, notice the sentences beginning with there.

I have got my own room. In my room there is a bed, a table, a chair, a wardrobe and a television. There is a window above the table. The television is opposite my bed so I can watch it when I am in bed.

The wardrobe is on the left and my bed is on the right. There is a computer on the table and books, pens and CDs are near the computer. There is a magazine and a camera on the bed.

Discuss these questions in pairs.

1. Does the description mention everything you see in the picture? What is not mentioned in the description?
2. How many sentences start with there.
3. How do you start a sentence to say where something is?

Look at some more examples of sentences beginning with there.

     There is a discussion this afternoon. It will start at four. There has been an accident. I hope no one is hurt.

There in the sentences above are known as introductory there. In these sentences there is used as the subject. Can you write more sentences with introductory there?

Complete the sentences to introduce a new topic or piece of information.

     There is a ----------------------------------------

     There has been------------------------------------

     There was ----------------------------------------

In pairs discuss when and where you may use this kind of there.

Now, read the following section to know more about the use of there

In English, the introductory there is used to introduce the sentence.

• There is a hole in my shoes. (More natural than A hole is in my shoes.)
• There is a bridge over the river.

There are is used with plural subjects. Examples:

• There are two people in the room.
• Once upon a time there were three bears in a forest.

Read the following section to check the use of introductory there :

When we talk about numbers or quantities, we frequently say-

     There was a lot of rain yesterday. There were less than two hundred people in the hall.

Again, if we want to say where something/somebody is/was/likely to be, we use sentences as follows :

There used to be a playground at the end of the lane. There are many gardens in the city. I wonder if there will be anyone there. (= at that place)

There is also used with infinitives :
There was nothing to watch on television. There is a lot of work to do.
We use a singular verb if the noun phrase is singular :

There is a meeting this evening. It will start at seven. There was a lot of rain last night. There is someone waiting to see you.

We use a plural verb if the noun phrase is plural :

There are more than ten people waiting to see my father. There were a lot of people doing the work.

Exercise
Look at the picture of a room. In pairs, say ten sentences to describe the things that you can see in the room. Use There is../There are... .Then, write ten sentences to describe your classroom using the same expression/s..

Lesson 1 : An Introduction

Read the following question and the answer :

Read the sentences in column A and compare each of them with column B. Discuss in pairs what differences you can see in the two sentences of the same row.

Although the two sentences in the same row express the same meaning, their structures are different. Have you noticed that once the doer is focused and once the action? There are two types of voice in English active and passive. When the doer is focused, we use active voice and when the action is focused, we use passive voice.

There are some rules for active and passive voices. Look at them :

1. The subject (e.g. I, he, Bashir, we, the mother in the previous activity) of the verbs in column A become the objects (me, him, Bashir, us, the mother) in column B.

2. The main verbs (e.g. compose, eat, help, know, feed) become past participle (composed, eaten, helped, known, fed)

3. Auxiliary verb 'be' (am, is, are, was, were) is used before the past participles in each sentence according to the tense of the verbs. You will see later that auxiliary verbs such as have, has, had, has been, have been, had been, is being, am being, are being, was being, were being, will be, can be, will be being, etc. are used before the past participle.

4. Usually 'by' is used before the object of the passive sentences.

Read the text and underline the passive sentences.
Bangla is our mother tongue. We take pride in it. On 21st February, 1952, our valiant sons laid down their lives for the cause of establishing our mother tongue as state language. To commemorate their sacrifice, the day was declared as international Mother Language Day in 1999 by UNESCO. International Mother Language Day is celebrated worldwide every year of 21st February. The main purpose of celebrating this day is to promote the awareness of language and cultural diversity all over the world.
International Mother Language Day is celebrated to remember the martyrs who were killed for our mother language. The day is also celebrated to convey the message of their sacrifice to the next generation.

Now, compare your underlined sentences and discuss their uses with your partner.

Change the following sentences to passive. Follow the structure: Subject + be verb + past participle + by + object. One is done for you.

1. I did the work (The work was done by me)
2. The girl is singing a song.
3. We ate our meal.
4. The boys are playing tennis.
5. They draw pictures.

Read the following sentences and think if the sentences can be transformed into passives. Discuss with your friend why it is possible or not possible to change them into passive:

1. He is a student.
2. I have a pencil.
3. Sonargaon is an old city.

Note : Only sentences with 'action verbs' (verbs which indicate some work or action) can be changed to passives. But sentences with stative verbs which indicate some condition like be, have, cannot be changed into passive form.

Lesson 2 : Voice of Present Tenses

Active: I write an application. 

Passive: An application is written by me.

Structure: Subject + be verbs (am, is, are)+ past participle of the main verb + by + object

Now, change the following sentences into passive :

1. We read novels.
2. Najibur pulls the cart.
3. My mother tells me a story.
4. We love our country.
5. The fisherman catches fish in the river.

Present indefinite questions & negatives

Look at the table below to understand the change of active to passive :

Work in pairs to change the following questions to passives. Follow the passive structure Do/does/what/why/ + auxiliary verb + not (if the sentence is negative) + past participle + by + object.

     a) Do you like tea?
     b) Doesn't mother cook rice pudding?
     c) Why do they like you?
     d) When does your father read newspaper?
     e) What do you say?
     f) Doesn't your sister teach you English?

Voice of Present Continuous

Active: I am eating an apple. Passive : 

An apple is being eaten by me.

Structure: Subject + be verb+ being + past participle + by + object

Present Continuous questions & negatives

Look at the table below to understand the change of active to passive :

Now, change the following questions to passives in pairs.

     a) Is she watching television?
     b) Are they playing chess?
     c) Is Mr Samir teaching you English?
     d) Is the mother feeding the baby?
     e) Is the head teacher calling me?

Present Perfect Tense

Active: I have eaten a banana.
Passive: A banana has been eaten by me.
Passive structure: Subject + have/has + been + past participle + by + object Change the following sentences into passive and compare your answers with those of your friend :

      a) Alim has opened the window.
      b) I have read the news.
      c) We have won the match.
      d) The hungry boy has eaten all the mangoes.
      e) Have they done the work?

Present Perfect Questions 

Structure: Have/has + subject + been + past participle + by + object 

Active : Have you made it? 

Passive : Has it been made by you?

Active : Has he not read the novel? (Hasn't he read the novel?)
Passive : Has the novel not been read by him? (Hasn't the novel been read by him?)

Lesson 3 : Voice of Past Indefinite

Active: I called you.
Passive: You were called by me.
Structure: Subject + be + past participle + by + object

Change the following sentences into passive :

Past Simple questions
Structure: Be + subject + past participle + by + object; if there are two objects, one becomes the subject and the other is put just after the past participle. See the example below
Active : Did you show me the picture? (Here the objects are: me, picture)
Passive : Was the picture shown me by you?/ Was I shown the picture by you?
Active : Didn't I give you the book?
Passive: Wasn't the book given you by me?/ Weren't you given the book by me?

Active: What did you say?
Passive: What was said by you?

Change the following sentences into passive :

a) Did the farmer grow onions?
b) When did you do that?
c) Which house did you buy?
d) What did he write?
e) Did she not eat mangoes?

Past Continuous
Read the following examples: 

Active : I was reading a novel 

Passive : A novel was being read by me. 

Active : Matin was calling me.

Passive : I was being called by Matin.

Now, change the following sentences to passives. Follow the structure to change into passive - subject + be verb (was/were) + being + past participle + by + object :

      a) They were pelting stones.
      b) My friend was waiting for me.
      c) The student was answering the questions.
      d) The farmers were harvesting paddy.
      e) The head master was giving advice.

Read the following actives and passives :

Active : Was she not teaching her son? 

Passive : Was her son not being taught by her? 

Active : Wasn't she listening to music? 

Passive : Wasn't music being listened by her?

Past Perfect

Read the following active and passive sentences: Active: You had done the work.
Passive : The work had been done by you.
Active : They had given me the dictionary.
Passive : The dictionary had been given to me by them/ I had been given the dictionary by them.

Now, change the following sentences to passives. Follow the structure Subject + had + been + past participle + (one of the two objects, if there are two) + by + object. Then get your answers checked by your friend.

      a) We had finished the work at 9.
      b) My father had built a house.
      c) Bashir had completed his studies.
      d) They had bought a house.
      e) He had dreamt a nice dream.

Read the examples first and then change the following sentences to passives. Follow the structure: Had + object + (not, if the sentence is negative) + been + past participle + by + object :

Active : Had you taken lunch?
Passive : Had lunch been taken by you?
Active : Had they not sung the national anthem?
Passive : Had the national anthem not been sung by them?/ Hadn't the national anthem been sung by them?

Change the following sentences into passive :

     a) She had prepared two cups of tea.
     b) Had you consulted the Longman dictionary?
     c) Hadn't you drunk coffee?
     d) The Head Teacher had invited the guardians.
     e) My daughter had drawn those pictures.

Lesson 4 : Future Simple

Read the following active and passive sentences:
Active : I will do the sums
Passive : The sums will be done by me.
Active : They will play the match.
Passive : The match will be played by them.

Now, change the following sentences to passives and compare your answers with those of your friends. Follow the structure : subject + will + be + past participle + by + object

     a) The boy will play football.
     b) We will welcome the chief guest.
     c) We will help the poor.
     d) Nasir will not eat bananas.
     e) They will run a race.

Future Simple questions

Read the following questions and their passive forms:
Active : Who will help me?
Passive : By whom will I be helped?
Active : What will he do?
Passive : What will be done by him?

Now, change the following sentences to passive :
     a) What will you make?
     b) Will you do me a favour?
     c) Who will collect the information?
     d) Will you bring the book?
     e) Will you tell me?

Future Continuous
Active : I will be eating apples.
Passive : Apples will be being eaten by me.
Active : We will be playing chess.
Passive : Chess will be being played by us.

Now, change the following sentences to passive :
a) He will be reading English.
b) My father will be buying a dress.
c) The farmers will be preparing the soil.
d) We will be practising badminton.
e) The students will be speaking English.

Lesson 5 : Passives with Modals

Have a look at the following active and passive sentences.
Active: I can do this.
Passive: This can be done by me.
Active: He would drive the car. Passive: The car would be driven by him.
Active: We should help the distressed.
Passive: The distressed should be helped by us.

Now, change the actives to passives following the structure: Subject + modal verb + be + past participle + by + object :
     a) I will teach him.
     b) We ought to practise English speaking.
     c) We should obey our parents.
     d) Karim could operate the machine.
     e) You may do the work.

Passives of imperative sentences

Read the following active and passive sentences and discuss with your partner.

Active : Do the work.
Passive : Let the work be done.
Active : Help the poor
Passive : Let the poor be helped.

Now, change the active to passive following the structure: Let + subject + be + past participle + by + object.

     a) Bring the book.
     b) Open the door.
     c) Let me drink coffee.
     d) Let him do the work.
     e) Do not phone me.

Exercise

A) Change the actives to passives and the passives to actives :

     1. I did not do it.
     2. They play cricket.
     3. We are known to them
     4. Was the boy playing chess?
     5. She has compiled the articles.

B) The following sentences are passive. Correct the sentences with appropriate forms of verbs and words :

     a) The flute is play by Ali.
     b) Your friend is know by me.
     c) The bridge is construct by the chairman.
     d) The mango is sell by the shopkeeper.
     e) The match has being won by the class eight students

 C) Change the active to passive :

     a) Babul broke the glass.
          The glass _ by Babul.
     b) Babul is breaking the wall. by Babul.
          The wall _ by babul
     c) We drink water.
          Water _  by _.
     d) Who has written the letter?
          _ has the letter _ written?
     e) Abonti was operating computer.
          Computer _ by Abonti.

D) Change the active sentences to passive :

     a) Is she drawing a picture?
     b) Was your brother reading newspaper?
     c) I was not playing games.
     d) I watch English cartoons.
     e) We will speak English.

E) Change the active to passive and vice versa :

     a) Is a car being driven by him?
     b) The cow eats grass.
     c) I take care of my parents.
     d) Did you sow the seeds?
     e) He will make me a call.

F) Change the actives to passives :

     a) Give me the pen.
     b) Do not call me.
     c) Who calls you?
     d) I do not eat sugar.
     e) Did you dig the hole?

Lesson 1 : Assertive Sentences

Look at the following conversation and follow the changes when some message is reported to others :

     Teacher : What did you eat?
     Sukumar : I ate bread and butter.
     Teacher : What did Sukumar say, Asif?
     Asif : Sukumar said that he had eaten bread and butter.
     Teacher : Asif, how can you convey the same message in a different way?
     Asif : Sukumar said, "I ate bread and butter."

Now discuss in pairs how the following two ways of reporting are different :
Sukumar said, "I ate bread and butter."
Sukumar said that he had eaten bread and butter.
When you finish talking, read the following text :

Now, read the following Direct and Indirect speech forms and notice what we need to consider in changing direct speech into indirect.

Direct Speech: He said, "I am ill."
Indirect speech: He said that he was ill. Now, work in pairs to identify the areas where changes have occurred in indirect speech. Then have a close look at the indirect speech to note the changes. The changes have been shown in italics.

Features :

• 'that' has been added as a linker
• first person 'I' in the Direct Speech has been changed to 'he', based on the subject of the reporting verb 'he'
• the verb 'am' has been changed to 'was', based on the verb 'said' and its tense.

Different parts of a direct speech have different names. Have a look at the following direct speech :

Although the changes occur differently in case of five different kinds of sentences (Assertive, Interrogative, Imperative, Optative, and Exclamatory) and tenses, some general rules apply to all of them. One thing should be kept in mind that there are some common things such as tenses, persons, and words indicating change in time and place.

Now, read the changes and discuss in pairs. 

Changing tenses

If the reporting verb is in the past tense, the tense of the verbs of the reported speech also become past tense, but if the reporting verb is in the present or future tenses, the tense of the verbs in the reported speech remain as it is.

The tense changes as follows:

Note: If the reporting verb is in the past tense, the modal verbs also change. For example: 'may' changes to 'might', 'will' changes to 'would', 'shall' changes to 'should' and so on.

Example : He said, "Bina may ask her". 

                 He said that Bina might ask her.

You will find the changes in modals later in this unit.

Now, look at the following examples :
Direct : Abonti said, "I have read the novel"
Indirect : Abonti said that she (Abonti) had read the novel.
Direct : My sister says, "It is good to get up early in the morning." Indirect: My sister says that it is good to get up early in the morning.
Direct : Bela said, "I will come back soon." Indirect: Bela said that she would go back soon.

Note: If the reported speech indicates habitual facts, historical events or talks about eternal (universal) truth, the tense of the verb in the reported speech does not change. Look at the following examples :

Direct : The Head Teacher said, "The sun rises in the east." 

Indirect : The Head Teacher said that the sun rises in the east. 

Direct : Atanu said to me, "I get up from bed at 6 in the morning every day." 

Indirect : Atanu said to me that he (Atanu) gets up from bed at 6 in the morning every day.

Changing Persons 

If you look at the indirect speech above, you will see that persons (nouns and pronouns) in the inverted commas have been changed in agreement with the subject and object of the reporting verbs.

Talk in pairs to find what rules have been followed in changing the persons. Now match your rules with the following :

1) The first person(s) of the reported speech is changed based on the person, number and gender of the subject of the reporting verb. 

2) The second person(s) of the reported speech is changed based on the person, number and gender of the object of the reporting verb. 

3) The third person(s) of the reported speech is not changed at all.

Have a look at the examples :

Indirect : He said to me that he respected me.

Direct : I said to him, "They have prepared their lessons." 

Indirect : I said to him that they had prepared their lessons.

Some words expressing time (now, today, etc.), place and things (here, this, etc.) change if the reporting verb is in the past tense. Look at the examples :

Direct : He said, "I am working now."
Indirect : He said that he was working then.

Direct : My friend said, "I am coming today."
Indirect : My friend said that he/she was going that day.

Direct : Nayon said, "I come here every day."
Indirect : Nayon said that he went there every day.

Now talk in pairs to find more words that express time and place like now, today, here, this, etc. When you have finished, compare your list with the following :

Note: If the time and the place of reporting remain the same, we do not need to change the words as shown above. Look at the following examples :

Direct : The English teacher said, "The Inspector of schools will come today."

Indirect : The English teacher said that the Inspector of Schools will come today.

(The reporter is reporting at the time when they hear the news and they are reporting from the same place. So 'will', 'come' and 'today' are not changed.)

Direct : My maternal uncle said, "I was born here in Dhaka."

Indirect : My maternal uncle said that he was born here in Dhaka (reporter is in Dhaka).

Exercise 1

Change the following direct sentences into indirect in pairs.

     1. Jenny said, "Two and two make four."
     2. Mother said to the son, "You will come back tomorrow."
     3. The farmer said, "I grew the vegetables in my farm."
     4. The teacher said to the boys, "I love you all."
     5. The man said, "The sun is hot."
     6. The shopper said, "I bought flour from this shop."
     7. The visitors said to me, "We like your art work."
     8. The player said, "I kicked the ball forcibly."
     9. The teacher said to the student, "You have forgotten the lesson."
     10. I said to my mother, "I go to bed at 11 every night."

Lesson 2 : Interrogative sentences

You read and practised how to change the Assertive direct sentences to indirect in the previous lessons. Now, have a look at the following direct and indirect speech forms.

Then work in pairs and make a list of rules how they have been changed.

Direct : He said to me, "What did you eat in the morning?" 

Indirect : He asked me what I had eaten in the morning.

Direct : He said to her, “When will you come?”

Indirect : He asked her when she would go.

Direct : My father said to me, “Are you going to school today?”

Indirect : My father asked me if (whether) I was going to school that day.

Now compare your rules with the following :
If the reported speech is an interrogative sentence,

     1) The reporting verb changes to ask/demand/enquire of/want to know, etc.
     2) If the question starts with Wh-words, the Wh-words act as connectors.
     3) If the question can be answered with 'yes' or 'no', 'if'/'whether' is used as a linker.
     4) When an interrogative direct speech is changed to indirect, it becomes an assertive sentence.
     5) Other rules mentioned earlier are applicable here, too.

Exercise 2

Change the following direct sentences to indirect individually and then compare your answers in pairs :

     1. The student said to me, "Did you call me?"
     2. I said to my mother, "Will you come to collect me from school?"
     3. The teacher said to Abonti, "How do you come to school?"
     4. He says to me, "Do you know me?" 5. The bus conductor said, “Have you paid the fare?”

Lesson 3 : Imperative Sentences

Read the direct and indirect speech forms and identify the rules which have been applied to change them to indirect.

Direct : The poor man said, “Please, give me a piece of bread.”

Indirect : The poor man requested to give him a piece of bread.

Direct : The father said to the son, "Do not eat junk food?"

Indirect : The father forbade the son to eat junk food.

Direct : The teacher said to the students, "Go to your classroom." 

Indirect : The teacher asked students to go to their classroom.

Direct : The boy said to the man, "Sir, give me your pen, please." 

Indirect : Addressing the man as Sir, the boy requested him (the man) to give him (the boy) his pen.

Now, compare the rules you prepared with those given below :

1. As per the sense of the reported speech, the reporting verb changes to tell/order/command/request/beg/forbid/ask, etc.

2. 'to' is used as a connector and if the reported speech is negative, 'not to' is used as a linker.

When there is 'let us' in direct speech, it indicates proposal or suggestion. In case of such sentences, reporting verb is changed to propose or suggest. 'Let' is replaced by 'should'.

Look at the following examples :

Direct : Atanu said, "Let us play cricket." 

Indirect : Atanu proposed/suggested that they should play cricket.

Direct : The chairperson said, "Let us drop the matter." 

Indirect : The chairperson proposed that they should drop the matter.

Direct : Ria said, “Please let me go now.” 

Indirect : Ria requested that she might/might be allowed to go then.

When 'let' indicates permission, 'let' changes to 'might' or 'might be allowed to'. The reporting verb may remain the same or can be changed to 'request/might/might be allowed to' based on the sense of the sentence.

Look at the examples :

Direct : He said, “Let me go.” 

Indirect : He said that he might/might be allowed to go.

Direct : My brother said, "Let me watch television." 

Indirect : My brother said/requested that he might/might be allowed to watch television.

Exercise

Change the following imperative sentences into indirect speech and then compare your answers in pairs :

1. The father said, "Do not tell a lie."
2. He said, "Let me help you."
3. Mother said to me, "Go to bed at once."
4. The farmer said, "Let us dig the soil."
5. The teacher said to the students, "Let us finish today."
6. The teacher said, “Do not laugh at the poor.”
7. The student said to the Headmaster, "Sir, grant me a full free studentship, please."
8. The Headmaster said to the students, "Always speak the truth.”
9. The police said to the agitating people, "Stop shouting!"
10. Asfaq said to the boys, “Speak in English, please.”

Lesson 4 : Optative sentences

Read the following sentences individually and then work in pairs to find the rules followed to change them to indirect speech forms :

Direct : She said to me, "May you prosper in life." 

Indirect : She wished that I might prosper in life.

Direct : Mother said to her daughter, "May God help you." 

Indirect : Mother prayed that God might help her daughter.

Direct : They said, "Long live our Prime Minister." 

Indirect : They wished that their Prime Minister should live long.

Direct : The English teacher said, "Good morning, my students." 

Indirect : The English teacher wished his/her students good morning.

Now, compare the rules you have identified with the following :

1. The reporting verb changes to 'wish'or 'pray'.
2. 'That' is used as a connector
3. The optative sentence becomes a statement when made indirect.
4. Although 'may' is not there in the reported speech, its past form 'might' is used in the indirect speech.
5. Sentences that indicate greetings, farewell, goodbye, etc., do not need to use 'that' as a connector. After 'wish'/'bid', the greetings are used to change the direct to indirect speech forms.

Exercise

Change the following direct sentences to indirect speech in pairs :

1. Father said to me, "May you get a good grade in the JSC examinations!"
2. The saint said to the students, "May God bless you all!"
3. Mother said to Kajol, "May you live healthy!"
4. Ponkoj said to Amin, "Goodbye my friend."
5. Atanu said to his mother, "Good night."

Lesson 5 : Exclamatory Sentences

Read the following direct and indirect speech forms and try to guess the rules followed to change the direct to indirect.

Discuss in pairs and make a list of the rules.

Direct : The players said, "Hurrah! Our team has won the match." 

Indirect : The players exclaimed (cried out/shouted) with joy that their team had won the match.

Direct : The boy said, "Alas! My father is no more alive." 

Indirect : The boy exclaimed with sorrow that his father was no more alive.

Direct : Faridul said to Fahim, "What a nice bird it is!" 

Indirect : Faridul exclaimed with joy to Fahim that it was a very nice bird.

Direct : He said to me, "What a funny boy you are!" Indirect: He cried out in joy that I was a very funny boy.

Now, compare your rules with the following :

1. Based on the sense of the reported speech, the reporting verb changes to exclaim, cry out in/with joy/sorrow/grief/wonder/surprise, shout in joy/sorrow/grief/wonder/surprise.

2. 'That' is used as connector

3. The indirect speech becomes an assertive sentence.

Exercise

Now, change the following sentences to indirect speech in pairs :

1. The boy said, "What a stupid boy I am!"
2. The man said, "What a sad story it is!"
3. The doctor said, "What a terrible wound it is!"
4. The boy said, "Hurrah! Our school team has won the debate competition."
5. My class teacher said to me, "How brilliant you are!

Lesson 1 : An Introduction

un-comfort-able

(un = prefix; comfort = root word; able = suffix)

Now, separate the root words, affixes (prefixes and suffixes) of the following words and compare your answers with your partner : 

unfair, empower, dishonest, misunderstand, helpful, player, coming, shortly.

A. Now, ask and answer the questions in pairs.

What is the common name of the groups of letters added to the root words to form new words?

What is known as a prefix? 

What is a suffix?

Why do we use prefixes and the suffixes?

So, you can understand that an affix is a group of letters added to a word to change its meaning and parts of speech. Some affixes can be added to the front of words and some others at the back. An affix added to the beginning of a word to form a new word with new meaning is known as a prefix. For example, 'mis' in misunderstand, and 'un' in untie are called prefixes.

The most common prefixes in English are - dis, in, re, un. These four cover most of the prefixed words. On the other hand, the most common suffixes are -ed, ing, ly, es. They also cover most of the words made with suffixes.

B. Look at the following words that have added some letters at the end of the words (suffix). Try to separate the root words and the suffixes.

powerful,     kindness,     suddenly,     latest,      player

C. Now, read the most commonly-used prefixes, their meaning, and examples from the following table.

D. Look at some prefixes, their meaning, and words formed with them.

E. Look at the most commonly-used suffixes, their meaning, and words made with them from the following table.

Exercise 1

Make five new words using the following suffixes ing, ic,er, ful, es. Then compare your answer in pairs.

Exercise 2

Ask and answer the questions in pairs. Use affixes in your answers. You can choose the affixed words below. The first one is done for you.

          invisible,      recently,      shortly,      unkind,      illegal

Question : Is Mr. Rahman kind to the poor people? 

Answer : No, he is unkind. 

When are you coming back?

Is the moon visible in the new moon?

Is it legal to drive a car when the red light is on? 

When has your father come from abroad?

Exercise 3

Read the text and use affixes (prefixes and suffixes) to make the story grammatically correct. Then compare your answers with your partner.

Farzana began her journey when she receive an urgent call from her mother. Her journey was comfort because of bad weather. She was look for an umbrella as it was rain heavy. There was no rickshaw in the road. However, Farzana was astonish to see the kind of an auto driver. Hear her trouble, the drive offer her a lift. She was thank to the driver for his kind. "I will remember your help for long period of time" said Farzana. The driver polite made a bow, lowered his head towards Farzana and left the place.

Lesson 1 : An Introduction

Read the story given below and discuss with your partner where the capital letters have been used :

There was a poor boy named Rakib. He lived in a small village of Ghorasal in Palash upazila under Narsingdi district. His mother died on a Sunday in January 1994. At that time, Rakib was only five. When he was 12, he started to work in a rich man's family as a domestic help since his father was not in a position to bring him up. Rakib used to obey the orders of the family members although Mojnu, the only son of the rich man, did not like to get things done by Rakib. Rakib was happy to see his master's son Mojnu going to a school named Fulkuri High School. Although he had to work hard, he used to ponder upon the things and events around him whenever he could find time. "I want to learn what my master's son is learning" said Rakib to himself. He made friendship with Mojnu. Mojnu used to tell stories to Rakib about the successes of some hard-working people with a view to inspiring his friend. He also used to tell stories about some countries such as Singapore, Australia, and Japan. Rakib thought, "If I could go to the countries!" He started to learn English and Japanese languages through watching TV, and by reading books named Learn English, Learn Japanese. Alongside learning languages, he started to learn about different nations such as the French, the Americans, and the Indians. By this time Rakib was 22. He became a member of the local Library near the high school and used to borrow books from there. By reading books and through holding dialogues with his friend, he acquired knowledge equivalent to a secondary school passed student with good grade. Last week he read about the Declaration of Independence of Bangladesh and about the French Revolution which made him more aware of his rights and responsibilities. He got a job in a Singapore Dockyard through browsing the Internet at the library. The senior members working voluntarily at the library were of great help in this regard. Rakib's hard work started to make his long-cherished dream a reality. Rakib is grateful to Allah for His help to make his plan successful.

Work in pairs and make a list where capital letters are used in writing. The first one is done for you. (The first letter in a sentence becomes capital.)

Now compare your list with the one given below.

Features of Capitalisation

1. The first letter of the first word in a sentence (The bird is flying.)
2. Names of people (Rakib, Mojnu, Rahim, Ratan, etc.), places (Ghorasal, Palash, Narsingdi, Dhaka, London, etc), days (Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, etc.), months (January, February, March, etc.), rivers (the Padma, the Ganges, the Megna, the Buriganga, etc.), mountains (Mt. Everest, Mt. Cook), huge constructions (the Sears Tower, the Eifel Tower, etc.) start with capital letters.
3. Names of organizations (Savar High School, High Court, Notre Dame College, World Bank, etc.) begin with capital letters.
4. The pronoun "I" always is capital (As he called me for help, I helped him).
5. Names of nations (Bangladeshis, Americans, British) begin with capital letters.
6. The main words in a title of a book or of a chapter or an article (Learn English, Learn Japanese; Great Expectations; The Liberation War of 1971, etc.) start with capital letters.
7. The main words of historical events or documents (Declaration of Independence, French Revolution, etc.) always start with capital letters.
8. Letters and acronyms that stand for names or organizations (UNICEF, TV, IELTS etc.) have to be written with capital letters.
9. Names of the Almighty and related pronouns are always capital (I am surprised to see God's power and His immense love for mankind).
10. The first word in Quotation Marks starts with a capital letter (He said to me, "Go home at once").

Lesson 2 : Use of Punctuations

Look at the following punctuation marks and discuss in pairs what their names are and why they are used.

Now compare your answers from the given table.

Exercise 1 :

Read the following dialogue and use punctuation marks in each gap as necessary.

Disha: Did you call me yesterday_.
Papia: Sorry I forgot to call you _However_Nazrul called you_
Disha: Why did Nazrul call me_ Papia: He said_ _I want to give some things to Disha_
Disha: What are those things_
Papia: So far as I know they are a set of books_ a box of colour pencils_an Oxford Dictionary_ and a laptop_

Exercise 2 :

Now, read the following application written by a class eight student. Work in pairs to decide why his English teacher has underlined some areas. Consider capitalization and the use of punctuation marks.